PUSHING THEPARADIGM OFGLOBAL WATERSECURITYTransnational perspectivesfor the next generationsVictoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and Rachael MayselsDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestPushing the Paradigm ofGlobal Water SecurityDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestPushing the Paradigm ofGlobal Water SecurityEdited byVictoria Anker, Rachael Maysels andMaria Valasia PeppaDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestPublished by IWA PublishingUnit 104–105, Export Building1 Clove CrescentLondon E14 2BA, UKTelephone: +44 (0)20 7654 5500Fax: +44 (0)20 7654 5555Email: publications@iwap.co.ukWeb: www.iwaponline.comFirst published 2024© 2024 IWA PublishingApart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism orreview, as permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1998), no part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means,without the prior permission in writing of the publisher, or, in the case of photographicreproduction, in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the Copyright LicensingAgency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the appropriatereproduction rights organization outside the UK. 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IWA and the Editors and Authors will not accept responsibility forany loss or damage suffered by any person acting or refraining from acting upon anymaterial contained in this publication.British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN: 9781789062540 (eBook)ISBN: 9781789062557 (ePub)Doi: 10.2166/9781789062540This eBook was made Open Access in September 2024.© 2024 IWA PublishingThis is an Open Access book distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution Licence (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits copying and redistribution fornon-commercial purposes with no derivatives, provided the original work is properlycited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). This does not affect therights licensed or assigned from any third party in this book.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestContentsPreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ixForeword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiAcknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiiAbout the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Principle 1 Justice – introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Chapter 1 Social justice – recognition and representation . . . . . . . . . 151.1 Associativity for the Recognition of Community WaterManagement, Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.2 Access and Justice: An Evaluation of Public Participation in Waterand Development Planning in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.3 Social Justice in Water Security Through Systems PerformanceAssessment: The Cases of Colombia and Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Chapter 2 Social justice – redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452.1 Water Injustice in Slums: A Case Study ofSettlements Along Barapullah Drain, Delhi, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452.2 Untold Stories: Farmers Living Along the Yamuna, Delhi, India . . . . . 542.3 Social Justice in Water Security Considerations for UrbanAgriculture Initiatives: The Case of Shenkora 2 Multi-PurposeGarden in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Chapter 3 Ecological justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633.1 Ecological Justice in the Realm of Peatland Restorationand Carbon Storage in the UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633.2 Water Heritage from India’s Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestvi Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityChapter 4 Socio-ecological justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794.1 Hidden Voices of Rural Campesino Communities in Colombia and the Need for Socio-Ecological Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804.2 Political Leadership of Women in the Upper Cauca River Basin,Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904.3 The Kisgó Community, Colombia: Origins and Practices in Water . . . 93Principle 1 Justice – conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Principle 2 Knowledge – introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101Chapter 5 Data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095.1 Multitemporal Analysis for Water Monitoring, Management,and Security from a Remote-Sensing Perspective in Colombia . . . . . . 1095.2 Innovative Molecular Microbiology Method for Water QualityTesting and Faecal Pollution Source Tracking: Cases fromthe UK and Globally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155.3 Exploratory Mixed Methods Design in Practice-CentredResearch: Showering in Cali, Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120Chapter 6 Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316.1 Camels-Eth Explorer: Hydrometeorological and GeospatialInteractive Database to Support Water Resource Managementin Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316.2 Enhancing Climate-Based Information for Johor River Basin,Malaysia: Accessing Data and Overcoming Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Chapter 7 Data modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417.1 Understanding Water Security in NCT Delhi, India: UsingQualitative and Quantitative Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1467.3 Leveraging the Power of AI for Building Predictive ModelsAdaptive to Future Urban Flooding in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia . . . . . . 150Chapter 8 Data integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598.1 Connecting Socio-Ecological and Ecosystem Services inSouth-Western Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598.2 Understanding Water Pollution and Microbial Hazards toImprove Public Health in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167Principle 2 Knowledge – conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Principle 3 Collaboration – introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173Chapter 9 Barriers to collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799.1 Exploring the Complexity of Collaboration for WaterGovernance in NCT Delhi, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestContents vii9.2 Youth in Urban Water Future: Participation, Recognition, andAccountability in NCT Delhi, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184Chapter 10 Consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19110.1 Stakeholder Engagement: Exploring Multiplicity of Values inJohor River Basin, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19110.2 Participatory Scenario Development for Water AllocationModelling and Sustainable Water Management in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . 196Chapter 11 Citizen science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20711.1 Education-Driven Crowd-Based Rainfall Observation inJohor River Basin, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20711.2 Leveraging Citizen Science for Urban Flood Management inNCT Delhi, India: The Aab Prahari App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21211.3 Community-Based Flood Early Warning Systems in the AkakiCatchment, Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215Chapter 12 Co-production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22312.1 Community-Based Wash Solutions in NCT Delhi,India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22312.2 Socio-Technical Innovation for Water Quality Data: InformationSystems for Rural Community Water Management in Colombia . . . . 223Chapter 13 Community leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23113.1 Networks of Collective Care: Cooperation for Conservationin a Colombian Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231Principle 3 Collaboration – conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestPrefaceVictoria AnkerThe idea for this book emerged five years ago, when the first cohort of theEarly Career Network of the Water Security and Sustainable Development Hubmet at our first in-person Assembly in Malaysia, September 2019. The authorshave weathered geopolitical conflict and a global pandemic, as well as cutsto the UK’s Official Development Assistance – which saw our programme’sbudget reduced by a third. The book was initially conceived as a way to bridgebarriers – disciplinary, geographical, and cultural – while bringing together agroup of burgeoning scholars and their networks to discuss the global and localchallenges of water security.What we present here is an amalgamation of our personal and professionalefforts to address these challenges. The nuance of this book is in ourmethodology: transnational cooperation, collaboration across disciplines, anddiagnostic problem-solving. While we do not promise a single solution (there isno such thing as ‘one size fits all’), we believe this timely contribution broadensthe discussion around water security through its firm rejection of reductionistapproaches to this most complex of ‘wicked problems’.Most notably, this book pushes for the radical acceptance of the indivisibilityof environmental conservation, social stability, and economic vitality. We resistthe temptation of ‘green growth’, recognising it as little more than neoliberalismin disguise. The brilliance, innovation, and recall to tradition that emergethrough this book demonstrate the importance of solutions that are informedby a plurality of knowledge types (from scientific and technical to indigenousand local) and generated through collaboration and partnerships to support theattainment of socio-ecological justice.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestForewordRichard DawsonAs the Director of the Water Security and Sustainable Development Hub,I am delighted to write the foreword for this book. It is an astonishing output;conceived and led entirely by early career researchers from the outset. Bringingtogether a team of over 40 early career researchers and partners from aroundthe world would be a remarkable achievement at any time, but it is even moreremarkable given they have navigated conflicts in their countries, adapted tobudget cuts, and lived through a global pandemic.Water security is fundamental to our environment, health, well-being, andeconomy. Yet water insecurity is a daily reality for billions of people; be thatinadequate access to clean water and sanitation, or exposure to water disasterssuch as floods and droughts. These pressures are becoming more acute aroundthe world in the face of conflict, pollution, damage to ecosystems, uncontrolleddevelopment, and climate change.The book is a timely and urgent reminder of the need to take a broad,collaborative, and more proactive approach to addressing water security.It is quite distinctive in the way it explores water security through multipleperspectives, drawing upon case studies and experiences from around the world.The book foregrounds the voices of early career researchers, non-governmentalorganisation and industry practitioners, indigenous and local communities, andgovernment agencies. I encourage you to explore this as an anthology, to read thetext but also to watch and listen to the voices at the front line of water security.When developing the vision and research programme for the Water SecurityHub, we placed great importance on the development of the next generationof researchers and practitioners from the beginning. There is no silver bullet,no single action, that will solve our water security problems. The WaterSecurity Hub has focused on training and capabilities in a systems approachthat engenders collaboration, facilitates learning from other disciplines, andenables more holistic strategies to address water security. This book showcaseshow collaboration across scales, sectors, and borders is essential for a moresustainable and water-secure future. I hope the authors are as proud as I am ofeverything they have achieved through their hard work: their collaborative andinterdisciplinary approach is embodied in this book.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestAcknowledgementsVictoria AnkerI am extremely appreciative of my fellow co-editors, Rachael Maysels andMaria Valasia Peppa, who have led this process gracefully and with unfailingcommitment to this book amidst a myriad of other priorities.I am grateful to all our contributors for their patience, perseverance, andpassion, and for joining a five-year journey of discussion, collaboration, andlearning, while responding graciously to feedback, suggestions, and questions.I am thankful to our International Advisory Board – Amare Haileslassie,Apolinar Figueroa Casas, Barbara Evans, Maggie Roe, Sandhya Rao, andZainura Zainon Noor – for supporting the development of this book sinceits inception. I’d also like to thank our senior colleagues – Alan Nicol, ClaireWalsh, David Werner, Jaime Amezaga, Lata Narayanaswamy, Miguel PeñaVarón, Richard Dawson, and Tom Curtis – for their insightful and informativefeedback.Many, many thanks to our media specialists –Esteban Andres Diaz Narvaez,Livia Douse, and the team at Roots and Wings (especially Alan Ramsay andJake Conrad) – for their incredible work translating our words into suchbeautiful visualisations and videos.Additional thanks to our funder, UK Research and Innovation, and inparticular Catherine Flynn for championing our creativity; Ankush Nimbriaand Radikha Modi for their astute observations; and all our managers whohave supported us as this project has progressed.Thanks to David Chaquea-Romero and Eduar Esteban Córdoba Rodríguezfor the conceptualisation and design of our striking cover illustration.As ever, I am indebted to Caroline Grundy for theoretical conversations,methodological musings, and practical solutions. Thank you for yourunwavering support and unshakeable confidence in this endeavour.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestAbout the AuthorsNaming conventions vary greatly across the geographies, ethnicities, andcultures of our contributors. To avoid insults and confusion, contributors arelisted A–Z by their personal name.EDITORSMaria Valasia Peppa (Dr) is a Lecturer in Geospatial Engineering andresponsible for data management at the Water Security Hub. Her work focuseson integrating multifarious geo-data from ground, mobile-based, and remotelysensed instrumentation to tackle global issues, and applying photogrammetriccomputer vision and Earth observation technologies.Rachael Maysels is a PhD student in Environmental Sciences at the Universidaddel Cauca, Colombia and is a Project Manager and Values Researcher at theWater Security Hub. Her work focuses on the intersection of water, food, andculture in the Upper Cauca River Basin. She specialises in sustainable foodsystems and transdisciplinary research.Victoria Anker (Dr) is the Impact and Communications Manager of theWater Security Hub. Her work focuses on generating impactful, evidencebased research. She specialises in managing complex projects with multiplestakeholders. Her background includes partnership management, capacitybuilding and training, and network facilitation.CONTRIBUTORSAdey Nigatu Mersha is a Researcher for the Hub at the Water and LandResources Centre, Ethiopia. Her research areas of interest include waterresource systems, integrated approaches to water management, agriculturalwater management, water systems analysis, catchment hydrology and climatemodelling, and water governance.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestxvi Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityAlejandro Figueroa is a PhD Researcher at the Universidad del Cauca,Colombia, and is Development Director at ELIA Environment and LandscapeInnovation Agency. He focuses on governance and multi-stakeholderarrangements for ecosystem services management. He has extensive experiencein private environmental consulting and water governance research.Andrés Fernando Toro Vélez (Dr) is a Researcher for the Hub at the Universidaddel Valle, Colombia. His work focuses on a comprehensive approach towatersheds through the development and implementation of nature-basedsolutions to promote sustainability, taking into account social, environmental,and institutional factors.Anna Murgatroyd (Dr) is a Lecturer in Hydrology at Newcastle University, UK.Her research interests span water resources planning and management, globalfood systems modelling, and climate impacts analysis. She has been part ofmultiple international projects that aim to improve access to safe, reliable, andclimate-resilient water supplies.Ashwini More is a PhD Researcher at Newcastle University, UK. Her currentwork, funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council,focuses on studying the reuse of heritage water management systems to addresscontemporary challenges. She has a background in environmental planningand architecture.Carolina Blanco Moreno (Dr) is a Lecturer in Social Science at the Universidaddel Valle, Colombia, and is a Researcher at the Hub. Her work focuses on the socialand community engagement component of water security. She has previouslyworked on strengthening community-based organisations and participatoryresearch.Carolina Montoya Pachongo (Dr) works at the University of Leeds, UK andCognita Links, Colombia, as a researcher, consultant, and entrepreneur inwater management and risk analysis. Her current role with the Hub includesthe development of the MUISKA (Multidimensional Risk Analysis for WaterSecurity) approach, which is based on risk science and participatory research.Carolina Salcedo-Portilla is a Sanitary and Environmental Engineer at theUniversidad del Valle, Colombia, and is a Researcher at the Hub. She works onissues of conservation and management of artisanal fisheries and their strategicecosystems, and governance and capacity building with community-basedorganisations.Catalina Trujillo Osorio is an economist with a master’s degree in AmazonianStudies and Regional Development. She is a Professor of SustainableDevelopment and Environment at the University of Quindío, Colombia,researching sustainable development, community environmental management,and hydro-social systems, with social network analysis.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestAbout the Authors xviiCindy Lee Ik Sing (Dr) is the Core Research Fellow for the Hub at NewcastleUniversity Medicine, Malaysia. Her work revolves around systems approach,water security, climate change, and health, focusing on and highlightingtheir interconnectedness. She manages water security research and traininginitiatives, including network facilitation.David Chaquea-Romero is an industrial designer and PhD Researcher inenvironmental sciences. His work focuses on the reproduction of domestic wateruse practices and their implications in water demand management. Throughhis work, he shows the relevance of applying mixed methods in analysing theconstitution of everyday household life.Diana Marcela Ruiz Ordóñez (Dr) is a biologist in Colombia. She leadsprojects on community exchange, learning, and dialogue on climate modelling,adaptation and mitigation strategies; development of bio-economic processesto strengthen regional integration; and valuation of ecosystem services, foodsecurity, water security, and territorial governance.Dinesh Kumar is a Commonwealth Scholar specialising in water resourcemanagement, who serves as a Senior Research Fellow for the Hub at the IndianInstitute of Technology (IIT) Delhi, India. His work emphasises decisionmaking under uncertain conditions in climate change policy within water andits allied sectors.Ermias Teferi (Dr), is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Hub with a specificfocus on catchment hydrology research at the Water and Land ResourcesCentre, Ethiopia, and Newcastle University, UK. He is also an AssociateProfessor at the Centre for Environment and Development, Addis AbabaUniversity, Ethiopia.Federico Pinzón is an economist, specialising in GIS and remote sensing.He has an MSc in Sustainable Development and is a PhD Researcher inEnvironmental Sciences. He was part of the development of ‘Nuestra Agua’, aninformation system for community water management, co-created by Aquacoland Universidad del Valle, Colombia.Greg O’Donnell (Dr) is a Senior Researcher in Hydrology at NewcastleUniversity, UK. His research focuses on the development, application, andvalidation of state-of-the-art numerical models to solve challenging problems,including the investigation of the impacts of land use and climate change oncatchment, continental, and global-scale hydrology.Jemila Mohammed Kassa is a consultant for the Hub, based at the InternationalWater Management Institute, Ethiopia. Her work focuses on generatingimpactful research on emerging water quality issues. She specialises in a widerange of water quality monitoring and capacity development of staff.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestxviii Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityJoshua B. Cohen (Dr) is a Research Fellow at the Sustainability ResearchInstitute, University of Leeds, UK. His work focuses on the interrelationsbetween people, plants, and water. Currently, with the WaterLANDS project,he hopes to contribute to more socially and ecologically just and sustainableforms of peatland and wetland restoration.Likimyelesh Nigussie is a Research Officer at the International WaterManagement Institute, Ethiopia. Her areas of expertise include gender equality,social inclusion, and governance within the agriculture and water sectors.Maheshwari Gupta is Assistant Professor in the Department of PhysicalPlanning at the School of Planning and Architecture (SPA), New Delhi,India. Her work focuses on the fields of architecture, physical planning, andenvironment. She has a BA in Architecture, a master’s degree in Ekistics, anda PhD in Physical Planning.Nasser Tuqan (Dr) is a Research Associate at the Hub. His research focuses onevaluating water security interventions. He is working on developing innovativemethods of to rapidly estimate costs, appraise alternatives, and assess water useefficiency. He is passionate about civil engineering methods and approaches inthe global majority.Natalia Duque is a biologist with a master’s degree in Sustainable Development.She is currently working on a PhD in Environmental Sciences. She researcheswater management with rural communities in Cauca and Valle del Cauca,Colombia. She has previously worked on environmental education programmesin rural secondary schools and in labs analysing aquatic macroinvertebrates.Neo Sau Mei (Dr) is a Postdoctoral Researcher for the Hub at the Centre forEnvironmental Sustainability and Water Security, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia(IPASA-UTM), Malaysia. She specialises in engaging with communities andstakeholders, and exploring local values, attitudes, and behaviour through newmethods and interactive tools.Nitin Singh is a Researcher at SPA Delhi, India under the Hub. Specialisingin spatial planning, his research delves into the domain of water governanceand security in urban areas. His current work and research interests span overwater policy and spaces for public participation during the policy process.Prabhakar Shukla (Dr) works as a Scientist (GIS and water resourcesmanagement) for the Hub at IIT Delhi, India. His research focuses on hydrologicalmodelling, climate change, and vulnerability and risk assessments in the watersector. He has extensively published scientific research in reputed journals.Pranav Singh has nearly 15 years of experience in the development sector,championing slum-upgrading projects that have been recognised by nationalDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestAbout the Authors xixand international platforms. He currently leads Janya Collective, a partnerorganisation of the Hub, studying the lives of people living in informalsettlements along the Barapullah Drain, India.Renu Khosla (Dr) is the Director of the Centre for Urban and RegionalExcellence, India. She aims to unthink and reimagine slum and inclusiveurban development, fostering community-led initiatives that build resilience.She works to strengthen local capacity for participative planning, spatial dataanalysis, and design of localised integrating solutions.Rixia Zan (Dr) is a Research Associate of the Hub based at Newcastle University,UK. Her work focuses on using molecular microbiology for on-site microbialwater quality monitoring and public health-related research. She has previousexperience in rapid method detection, stormwater management, environmentalDNA analysis, and water quality monitoring.Rocio Manzano Quintero is a university graduate, community leader in Valledel Cauca, Colombia, and defender of community ecosystem rights withinthe territories. She promotes belonging, urban-rural appropriation in identityclaims, and preservation of bio-cultural heritage, knowledge, and environmentalwell-being in the reconstruction of territory.Samy Andrés Mafla Noguera is an economist and business administratorwith a master’s degree in Sustainable Development from Universidad del Valle,Colombia. He has previously worked on a range of climate change projects,formulating adaptation and mitigation actions. He also has extensive knowledgeof water sustainability analysis.Savitri Kumari is an urban planner and currently a PhD Researcher in theDepartment of Physical Planning at SPA New Delhi, India. Her research area iswater governance in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, India. Her researchinterest areas include urban water security, water governance, planning andpolicy, and spatial planning.Shambhavi Gupta is an urban planner and Master of Public Administrationcandidate at Columbia University, USA. Previously, she researched urban watergovernance and water-sensitive planning at the Hub in SPA New Delhi, witha focus on the National Capital Territory of Delhi. She is passionate aboutclimate adaptation centred on nature-based solutions.Sheilja Singh is a full-time PhD Researcher in the Department of PhysicalPlanning at SPA New Delhi, India, specialising in the planning approach forrejuvenating urban water bodies. Her research extends beyond traditionalarchitecture, focusing on environmental issues, water resources management,and climate change.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestxx Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityShivani Singhal (Dr) is a Research Fellow at the University of Leeds, UK. Sheexplores the intersection of water, environmental justice, political ecology,and governance. Her interdisciplinary work addresses challenges in watermanagement, aiming to enhance societal well-being and environmentalsustainability.Tilaye Worku Bekele is an Assistant Researcher at the International WaterManagement Institute, Ethiopia and a Lecturer at the Ethiopian WaterTechnology Institute. His work focuses on hydrology and remote sensing.He specialises in flood risk management. He has previously worked on waterresource management.Vicky Azucena Muelas Solarte is a member of the indigenous Kisgó peoplein Colombia. She holds an undergraduate degree in Ethnoeducation and amaster’s degree in Neuropedagogy. She is a primary school teacher at the KisgóTechnical Educational Institution, which has allowed her to empower andinstil in students the identity and culture of their territory.Wan Asiah Nurjannah Wan Ahmad Tajuddin is a Postgraduate Researcherat IPASA-UTM, Malaysia. Her research focus is on urban water governancein the Johor River Basin. Her background includes urban planning, propertydevelopment, and environmental sustainability. Her hope is that water-sensitiveplanning will become increasingly mainstream in the future.Wegayehu Asfaw works for the International Water Management Institute andArba Minch University, Ethiopia and is a PhD Researcher at the University ofTwente, the Netherlands. His expertise is in hydrology and water resources,with extensive experience using Earth observation data and machine learningto monitor water resources in data-poor regions.Xanthe Polaine (Dr) is an Integrated Water Management Advisor at MottMacDonald, a global engineering, management and development consultancy.She focuses on driving integrated systems change through improved watermanagement and cross-sectoral initiatives. Her expertise is in water resourcesmanagement, systems thinking, and governance.Yady Tatiana Solano-Correa (Dr) is a Professor in Data Science and RemoteSensing at the Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, Colombia. She works, andhas worked, on several projects aiming to analyse remote-sensing informationfor climate change, water security, precision agriculture, and change detection.Zulfaqar Sa’adi (Dr) is a Hub Researcher at IPASA-UTM, Malaysia. Hisresearch focuses on hydro-climatological modelling and future projectionsfor hydrologic resilience, specialising in climate change assessment. He has abackground in environmental science, as well as expertise in climate changemodelling.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_001© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Victoria Anker, Rachael Maysels, Maria Valasia Peppa, Cindy Leeand Xanthe PolaineThis book brings together early career researchers, non-governmentalorganisation (NGO) and industry practitioners, indigenous and localcommunities, and government agency workers to interrogate the conceptof water security. By collating their multicultural perspectives, diversecontributions, and illustrative media, this book challenges the currentanthropocentric, technocratic narrative of water security, according to which:water security is solely for humans; development initiatives and interventionsare driven by neocolonial and neoliberal ideologies; the socio-cultural approachto water security is secondary to a technical, engineering-based approach; andinterdisciplinarity is not practical in its application.Water security has evolved significantly over the past few decades, with varioussectors adapting the concept to suit their own definitions of ‘successful’ watersecurity (Polaine et al., 2022a). Initially focused on a narrow, human-centredperspective, the paradigm now includes social, economic, and environmentaldimensions, reflecting the wide range of definitions and understandings, asdiscussed by Chiluwe and Claassen (2020). This broadening scope has madewater security a complex and dynamic issue, one that is challenging to defineor measure the ‘success’ of. Its growing relevance and interconnectedness haveled to widespread adoption of a specific vision of water security by global andregional organisations, including multilateral bodies, governments, and NGOs(Staddon & Scott, 2018), making it a central element in current sustainabledevelopment and funding discourses (Cook & Bakker, 2012).Still, with the uptake of this specific vision by large organisations witha central focus on international development and state building, watersecurity discourse has become dominated by top-down thinking and oftenomits the voices of those at the centre of the water security crisis, namelyindigenous communities, women and girls, youth, and environmental activists.Consequently, the current water security discourse does not reflect the diversityIntroductionDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest2 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityof the paradigm, or its evolving and dynamic nature. The purpose of this bookis not to contribute to the water security definition debate. Rather, we seek to(i) address the imbalance in, and segregation of, water security perspectives;(ii) critique current discourses around water security; and (iii) offer solutions toaddress development injustices and overcome sectoral silos.CONCEPTIONWater knows no borders or bounds: 153 countries around the world sharenearly 900 rivers, lakes, and aquifer systems. While using defined spaceslike river basins or water catchment areas can make water security easierto approach, we cannot reduce water systems to these physical parameters(Polaine et al., 2022b). Doing so places an undue emphasis on technical andeconomic efficiency, overlooking socio-ecological values (Mukhtarov, 2008).To expand the meaning of water security and move away from a narrowwater-centric framing, Zeitoun (2011) presents water security as a ‘web’,with water security at the centre, governed by social and physical processes,but also influenced by interconnected issues such as climate security, waterresources security, national security, food security, energy security, andhuman/community security. In this analogy, water security is a function ofthese interdependencies at multiple levels.Expanding on Zeitoun’s conceptual tool, this book understands watersecurity through an interdisciplinary lens with diverse concerns encompassingquality, quantity, health, land practices, governance, ecology, livelihood,economy, and so on (Narayanaswamy et  al., 2023). Such complex socioecological factors make water security a wicked problem (Bjornlund et al., 2018)that can only be addressed – so the authors of this book contend – by bringingtogether multi-skilled teams from all backgrounds and sectors, with differentlived experiences, to share different perspectives, ideas, and knowledge.While we operate in different contexts, we are all working on commonissues and seek to share our respective insights and experiences. As a globalproject tackling water security issues across a variety of locations, we knowhow important it is that we work together through interdisciplinary dialogue,knowledge generation and knowledge exchange among stakeholders, industry,communities, and researchers. Capacity building is another key vehicle of ourinterventions – both for our stakeholders and for our fellow researchers.1 Bythis, we mean building the capacity of researchers and stakeholders to addressaspects of water security within their local communities, increasing the capacityof researchers and stakeholders to work together to address those same issuesand complexities, and building on the capabilities of researchers to work innew, interdisciplinary ways and become research leaders in their own fields.1 Stakeholder has a wide range of different meanings for colleagues and was selectedas the most appropriate term that encompassed all ‘relevant groups’ engaged withour research. However, we acknowledge the conflicting uses of this term within thebroader academic community, especially in the context of decolonising research. Fora comprehensive discussion of alternative terms, we point readers towards Reed et al.(2024), which was published as this book was going to print.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestIntroduction 3CONSTRUCTIONThanks to our previous experience of working collectively across the globe,we soon realised that any book on such a broad topic as water security neededa clear framework in which we could all situate ourselves. Instead of taking athematic, geographic, or disciplinary approach, and thereby risk reinforcingthe intellectual barriers we seek to disrupt, we chose to identify three coreprinciples for water security – justice, knowledge, and collaboration. In doingso, we wanted to acknowledge the locally specific conditions in which we work,while simultaneously highlighting common principles that underpin (or thatshould underpin) any approach to meaningful (and sustainable) solutions.The challenges faced by each of the countries in which we work and study areunique, and there is no template for addressing water security. However, we allagree that water security cannot be sustainable unless it centres socio-ecologicaljustice (SEJ), recognises a plurality of knowledge systems, and fosters collaborationnot competition. While sustainability can be seen as a separate paradigm, weopine that sustainability is an inherent driver and marker of water security forenvironmental conservation, social stability, and economic vitality (Haileslassieet al., 2020). Water security that leaves no one and nothing behind must leaveno one and nothing out. In our opinion, this cannot be achieved without justice,knowledge, and collaboration because, while the water crisis is becomingprogressively acute (Sultana, 2018), it does not affect all people equally – in fact, itdisproportionately impacts marginalised communities (Boelens et al., 2018).These three principles come together to inform and enable a proactiveapproach to sustainable water security. Proactive management is not acommonly used term in the field of water security but, simply defined, it involvesplanning for potential threats to safe water supplies, which we argue should besituated within broader socio-ecological systems. It is an approach that focusesprimarily on preventive (proactive) measures to manage water risks and ensuresustainable water security, instead of responsive (reactive) measures to dealwith water-related crises (Figure I.1) (Madani, 2014).A proactive management paradigm recognises the complexity of watersystems and the associated uncertainties, as well as the water sector’sinterrelation with other sectors. By better understanding how water systemsbehave at different scales and how threats arise, it tackles the root of problemsin a holistic and progressive manner, rather than treating the symptoms of theproblem as they occur. In doing so, a proactive approach manages water ratherthan controlling it. Such an approach should explore a range of possible solutionpathways that include non-structural solutions related to policies, legislation,and institutional arrangements, as well as structural solutions such as storagesystems, diversions, water supply augmentation, water distribution networks,and development systems (Cooper, 2016; Madani, 2014).22 The Sendai Framework Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction provides a goodworking definition on the terms ‘structural’ and ‘non-structural’: https://www.undrr.org/terminology/structural-and-non-structural-measuresDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest4 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityORGANISATIONThis book is organised around three principles that we propose are necessaryto achieving water security – justice, knowledge, and collaboration – andwithout which we argue a proactive management approach, that benefitshumans and more-than-humans, is impossible. Each principle begins with anintroduction that explores the principle’s significance for and role in achievingwater security, followed by a brief explanation of its theoretical underpinnings,practical application, or lived experiences.• Principle 1 – justice: we argue that without justice we cannot have truewater security for all beings (human and more-than-human). Through aseries of spotlights, this section explores the intersectional application ofsocial, ecological, and socio-ecological justice.• Principle 2 – knowledge: we argue that without knowledge, we cannothave inclusive water security. Through a series of spotlights, thissection explores methods, tools, and frameworks to create an integratedknowledge base for a data-to-action approach.• Principle 3 – collaboration: we argue that without collaboration, wecannot have equitable water security. Through a series of spotlights,this section explores modes of participation and engagement that bolstercapabilities.Figure I.1 Proactive management for sustainable water security. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestIntroduction 5The chapters that follow demonstrate the principle in action through acollection of ‘spotlights’ offering up localised, dynamic approaches to watersecurity. We use the term ‘spotlight’ because these case studies are notprescriptive, nor are they the only solution to the challenges of water insecurity.Spotlights primarily present case studies from areas of study across our researchprogramme: the Upper Cauca River Basin (Río Cauca) of Colombia; the CentralRift Valley, Abbay Basin, and Awash Basin of Ethiopia; the Yamuna River Basinof India; and the Johor River Basin (Sungai Johor) of Malaysia, with featuresfrom cases in Palestine and the UK as well. While the biophysical and sociocultural conditions of these regions differ in many ways, the commonalitiesthat emerge from the case studies and the localised, dynamic approach towardsinterdisciplinary research can be adapted to basins throughout the world.Finally, in our conclusion, we demonstrate how these principles feedinto a proactive management approach for water security. This provides aframework for how water can be managed holistically by navigating injusticesin water systems, integrating pluralistic knowledge systems, and encouragingcollaboration and equitable partnerships.Throughout this volume we include a range of media to illustrate ourspotlights, such as infographics, sonorous postcards, videos, and interactiveimages. These serve as visual aids that highlight lived experiences from thehidden voices on the forefront of the fight for water security.Whether from a technical, social, or political background, we invitereaders to imagine what an ideal paradigm of water security could be whilereading, listening, and interacting with the spotlights throughout this book.In challenging the existing technocratic and top-down power structure of thecurrent paradigm of water security, we hope to deconstruct the barriers to afuture of true water security for all human and more-than-human beings.THE PROJECT3This book emerged out of the Water Security and Sustainable DevelopmentHub, a five-year, challenge-led research programme, funded by UK Researchand Innovation via the Global Challenges Research Fund, as part of the UK’sOfficial Development Assistance. In alignment with the United Nations’Sustainable Development Goals, the Water Security Hub works at scale acrossthe globe to (i) provide a response to critical development challenges and (ii)promote the long-term economic growth and welfare of low- and middle-incomecountries. The Early Career Network is comprised of over 100 members from11 countries with extensive knowledge and lived experience regarding watersecurity.43 This work was supported by the Water Security and Sustainable Development Hubfunded by the UK Research and Innovation’s Global Challenges Research Fund [grantnumber: ES/S008179/1].4 Across the full five years, the broader Water Security Hub team included over 200members, from 16 countries.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest6 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityREFERENCESBjornlund H., Nickum J. E. and Stephan R. M. (2018). The wicked problems of waterquality governance. Water International, 43(3), 323–326, https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2018.1452864Boelens R., Perreault T. and Vos J. (eds.) (2018). Water Justice. Cambridge UniversityPress, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316831847Chiluwe Q. W. and Claassen M. (2020). Systems perspectives on water security: Anapplied review and conceptual framework. Environmental Policy and Governance,30(6), 332–344, https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.1889Cook C. and Bakker K. (2012). Water security: debating an emerging paradigm.Global Environmental Change, 22(1), 94–102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.10.011Cooper M. (2016). Conclusions: the future of sustainable water management. In:Sustainable Water Management: New Perspectives, Design, and Practices, K.Nakagami, J. Kubota and B. I. Setiawan (eds.), Springer, Singapore, pp. 175–185,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1204-4_12Haileslassie A., Ludi E., Roe M. and Button C. (2020). Water values: discourses andperspectives. In: Clean Water and Sanitation, W. L. Filho, A. M. Azul, L. Brandli,A. L. Salvia and T. Wall (eds.), Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70061-8_140-1Madani K. (2014). Water management in Iran: what is causing the looming crisis? Journalof Environmental Studies and Sciences, 4, 315–328, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-014-0182-zMukhtarov F. G. (2008). Intellectual history and current status of integrated waterresources management: a global perspective. In: Adaptive and Integrated WaterManagement, C. Pahl-Wostl, P. Kabat and J. Möltgen (eds.), Springer Berlin,Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 167–185, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-75941-6_9Narayanaswamy L., Ferritto R., Hillesland M., Anker V., Singhal S., Maysels R. M.,Bantider A., Charles K., Doss C., Kumar A., Mdee A., Neo S.-M., Pinzón F. andMengistu B. T. (2023). Why a feminist ethics of care and socio-ecological justicelens matter for global, interdisciplinary research on water security. Frontiers inHuman Dynamics, 5, 1212188, https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2023.1212188Polaine X. K., Dawson R., Walsh C. L., Amezaga J., Peña-Varón M., Lee C. and Rao S.(2022a). Systems thinking for water security. Civil Engineering and EnvironmentalSystems, 39(3), 205–223, https://doi.org/10.1080/10286608.2022.2108806Polaine X. K., Nicol A., Amezaga J., Berihun M., Dessalegn M. and Haile A. T. (2022b).Problemscapes and hybrid water security systems in central Ethiopia. Frontiers inWater, 4, 800926, https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2022.800926Reed M. S., Merkle B. G., Cook E. J., Hafferty C., Hejnowicz A. P., Holliman R., MarderI. D., Pool U., Raymond C. M., Wallen K. E., Whyte D., Ballesteros M., BhanbhroS., Borota S., Brennan M. L., Carmen E., Conway E. A., Everett R., ArmstrongGibbs F., Jensen E., Koren G., Lockett J., Obani P., O’Connor S., Prange L., MasonJ., Robinson S., Sjukla P., Tarrant A., Marchetti A. and Stroobant M. (2024).Reimagining the language of engagement in a post-stakeholder world. SustainabilityScience, 19, 1481–1490, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-024-01496-4Staddon C. and Scott C. A. (2018). Putting water security to work: addressing globalchallenges. Water International, 43(8), 1017–1025, https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2018.1550353Sultana F. (2018). Water justice: what is matters and how to achieve it? WaterInternational, 43(4), 483–493, https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2018.1458272Zeitoun M. (2011). The global web of national water security. Global Policy, 2(3), 286–296, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-5899.2011.00097.xDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Rachael Maysels and Shivani Singhal‘The imbalance of water is the imbalance of the person. The human is notthe one that dominates the world. Our existence is fleeting. We cannotindebt ourselves beyond our own existence, this is a rule establishedfrom the origin. To exist without creating harm and retribute all that isreceived.’Alfonso Torres-Villafañe, indigenous Arhuaco from the Sierra Nevada ofSanta Marta, ColombiaOur first principle is that, without justice, we cannot have true water securityfor all beings (human and more-than-human). Through a series of spotlights,this section explores the intersectional application of social, ecological, andsocio-ecological justice (SEJ).SIGNIFICANCE OF PRINCIPLEIn 2010, the United Nations (Resolution 64/292) recognised the human right towater and sanitation. This right underpins UN Sustainable Development Goal 6(Clean Water and Sanitation for All). And this in itself opens up a discussion offairness and equity: if ‘all’ should have access to clean water and sanitation, wemust consider justice within the context of water security. As things stand, thehuman rights framework for water and sanitation is limited, often focusing ontechnocratic solutions implemented by private industry rather than addressingmore complex issues such as governance, power dynamics, and exclusion ofnon-human and marginalised social groups (Bakker, 2010; Boelens et al., 2018;Karunananthan, 2019).Within the water security paradigm, we must focus our attention on justiceto shed light on the complex power imbalances within decision-making. BothPrinciple 1Justice – introductiondoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_007Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest8 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityhuman and more-than-human communities are in crisis all over the globe –thus, environmental and social crises are inseparable (Furman & Gruenewald,2004). It is important to hold this in mind as we make meshed injustices andembedded power relations visible, informing our overall analysis.At the same time, the water crisis is becoming progressively more acute(Sultana, 2018). Water shapes societies and control of water directly relatesto larger socio-political processes of power (Joy et al., 2014). Water is a multisectoral entity that connects various categories: it is simultaneously social,economic, political, institutional, cultural, spiritual, and ecological. Water thusbecomes a lens through which to understand complex socio-ecological issuesand injustices (Sultana, 2018). As such, when a water justice approach is appliedto analyse various land and nature conflicts, it creates a pathway for politicalaction and decision-making, affecting a greater number of diverse users. Inother words, water is not just about water but encompasses broader issues ofdemocracy, citizenship, and development (Sultana, 2018). Through this lens,a more integrated understanding of land and water issues within governanceemerges. This is necessary to build alliances between social and environmentaljustice movements (Franco et al., 2013).Justice is a complicated concept with multiple meanings depending onwho defines it. Questions such as ‘justice for whom or what?’ and ‘justice forwhat purpose?’ must be asked. We argue against a singular understanding orapproach towards water justice, instead advocating for it to be addressed fromthe perspective of how it is experienced and defined by individuals or collectivesubjects in specific contexts (Boelens et al., 2018). A relational, contextual, andsituational conceptualisation of justice is more compatible with a lived approach,as it allows for plurality. And this relative understanding of justice must also bematched by the identification of common core issues that transcend localisedunderstanding, which is lacking in the conventional approach to water security(Joy et al., 2014).Moreover, it is important to review historical complexities related to socioeconomic fabrics and shifting spatial and political boundaries in conjunctionwith emerging injustices (Joshi, 2015). This is particularly crucial in the case ofhistorically marginalised communities, where water and environmental injusticesare tied to longstanding processes of colonialism, imperialism, neoliberalism, andpatriarchy (McGregor et al., 2020; Ulloa, 2017). This approach to justice does notromanticise ‘local’ or ‘traditional’ ‘communities’ (Joy et al., 2014), but insteadrecognises and considers lived experiences and realities from local perspectives.Efforts to address justice issues need to engage with these experiences andrestructure the governance system according to a more equitable, socially just,environmentally sustainable, and democratic axis (Joy et al., 2014).THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGSThe contemporary Western understanding of justice as deserved fairness andequity dates back to ancient Greek philosophers. According to Plato, ‘justice’was one of the four virtues needed to live a ‘good life’; building on this, Aristotleconsidered ‘justice’ to be of the highest importance out of the four virtues,Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestJustice – introduction 9as it encourages the individual to be of benefit to the community (Hamedi,2014). Across most Western ontologies, including the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights, this legally based, state-enforced framework has been upheld.In the modern era, Fraser (2008) presents a framework of social justice consistingof three main dimensions – redistribution, recognition, and participation – thatcan be applied in all social movements. When it comes to redistribution, Fraserargues resources must be justly distributed, with a prioritisation of groups that havefaced egregious injustices. According to this logic, recognition for the historicallymarginalised is needed, especially given the socio-cultural preference amongcertain groups to affirm differences rather than be recognised as the same as others(Wijsman & Berbés-Blazquez, 2022). When these groups, then, are not recognisedaccordingly by various actors, from the state to their fellow citizens, even in theirown communities, this can negatively impact them across a variety of realms,including the material, social, cultural, and financial. Similarly, participation is animportant dimension in Fraser’s social justice framework: through a participatoryprocess and engaged governance, potentially negative outcomes can be limitedand policies designed fairly. This is particularly important when adjusting forlocal contexts, as will be demonstrated throughout the spotlights in this section.The participatory process itself implies a certain respect for democracy and anawareness of power relations (Rutt & Gulsrud, 2016).So, the social justice movement emphasises that humans deserve and shouldprioritise justice. However, the ecological justice movement argues that morethan-human beings and entities also have intrinsic rights unrelated to theirinstrumental value to humans (Baxter, 2005; Kopnina, 2014). Proponentsof ecological justice do not claim that more-than-human species should beconsidered over humans, but rather that these beings have endured heinousinjustices without being able to speak up for themselves. According to thisframing, our ethics to care for each other as humans should be extended to themore-than-human world (Shoreman-Ouimet & Kopnina, 2015). This can beseen in recent legislation that grants legal rights of personhood to rivers, suchas the case of the Yamuna River in India (later overturned) and the Cauca Riverin Colombia (O’Donnell, 2020) (Figure P1.1).For many indigenous peoples, the notion of justice centres aroundtheir ontological belief that there is no separation between them and theirenvironment, which is distinct from dualistic Western ontology (McGregoret al., 2020; Ulloa, 2017). Reciprocity is a foundational concept in indigenousenvironmental justice – and this is also central to the SEJ movement, whichemphasises mutual respect and caring among all beings to maintain territorialbalance (Blanco Moreno & Peña Varón, 2023; McGregor et al., 2020).Many branches of social and environmental justice favour an anthropocentricapproach, while the ecological justice movement prefers an eco-centricapproach. Building on indigenous philosophies, SEJ is now emerging as afascinating middle ground, as a branch of justice that synthesises social andecological systems of meaning (Yaka, 2020). Various prominent authors inwater justice research (Boelens et al., 2018) are also proponents of SEJ, andpropose adding it to Fraser’s framework of environmental justice (recognition,representation, and redistribution) as a much-needed fourth dimension. WeDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest10 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityconsider this nuanced branch of justice to be critical for the future of justicein water security, shifting away from a model where humans and nature areplaced in opposition to each other and towards an understanding of ourselvesas part of, not rulers of, the natural world.AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONSThe spotlights that sit in this section are united by the theme of justice whileshowcasing different branches of justice in water security. We feature casestudies from Colombia, Ethiopia, India, Malaysia, Palestine, and the UK.In Chapter 1, Social Justice – Recognition and Representation, authorsCarolina Blanco Moreno, Wan Asiah Nurjannah Wan Ahmad Tajuddin, andNasser Tuqan analyse the two interconnected dimensions of recognition andrepresentation in the context of social justice for water security. According toCarolina, recognition consists of social relationships that are established throughhegemonic valuation processes that are institutionalised, which confer a certainstatus on each social group. By focusing on community-based organisations thatfollow traditional methods of using and managing water for human consumptionat the local rural level in Colombia, Carolina examines how social justice relatesto indigenous environmental justice and ecological justice.In the spotlight that follows, Nurjannah explores the link between access toinformation and procedural justice in the Johor River Basin in Malaysia. Thiscase study argues for procedural justice in planning to ensure that people aretreated with respect and decency. Nurjannah shows that while individuals andgroups might appear to be emphasising material aspects of water quality andFigure P1.1 Conceptual map of branches of justice related to water security (Credit:rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestJustice – introduction 11quantity, they are essentially struggling for justice in its various forms. Thus,even if groups do not explicitly phrase their actions in terms of justice, theirdemands for rights are in some way or another marked by this.Subsequently, Nasser argues that managing water scarcity via ‘efficiency’ hasbecome the bastion of the mainstream approach to water security, leveraginga neoliberal discourse that reduces justice agendas to a cost/benefit analysis.The concept of efficiency as it pertains to water use defines it as a productiveresource that aims to benefit all users (Joy et  al., 2014). But the languageof justice, when confined to quantitative measures, often remains merelyperformative rather than truly capturing the socio-political complexities. Byerasing the border trajectories of socio-ecological change, it ends up producinggreater inequalities, as Nasser demonstrates via the case studies he presents.As a result, in the long-term, this strictly technical approach towards water usemeasurement is ineffective (Hunt & Shahab, 2021).In Chapter 2, Social Justice – Redistribution, authors Pranav Singh, ShivaniSinghal, and Likimyelesh Nigussie present spotlights in which social injusticesemerge from inequitable power dynamics, rapid urbanisation, and unequaldistribution of water, land, and other resources. Authors approach these injusticesfrom intersectional lenses, recognising that marginalised communities in urbanspaces face not only water insecurity but also extreme poverty, discrimination,disease exposure, food insecurity, and more. Pranav takes us into the realitiesof the informal settlements, or slums, in Delhi, the capital city of India. Theyhighlight the extreme inequity resulting from the lack of policy and infrastructuresupport for safe water in slums, while there is lush development often just blocksaway. While the communities that live in these informal settlements haveproven adaptive and resilient, we are reminded that it is too often marginalisedcommunities that are disproportionately burdened by injustices.Similarly, Shivani presents a case study of tensions between farmers alongthe Yamuna Basin in India and urban development planners, causing threats toand actual displacement of farming communities. In the two cases of unstabletenure documented in the accompanying video, we see these communities standup in defence of their biophysical and socio-cultural spaces, self-organising toresist further injustices.In a solution-offering piece, Likimyelesh then shares a case study showcasingthe power of collective action in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, at the Shenkora 2Urban Farm. Led and managed by a women’s horticulture group, the farm offersa model that can be used to face intersectional challenges, particularly when itcomes to the extra layer of difficulties often faced by women in this space.In Chapter 3, Ecological Justice, Joshua B. Cohen highlights that watersecurity is not just about people accessing water equitably, but also about justicefor water as a more-than-human entity that possesses its own rights (Parsonset al., 2021). Ecological justice is rooted in an eco-centric philosophical position(Halsey & White, 1998). In many technical approaches, one runs the risk offailing to recognise cultural traditions and land use, leading to displacement ofthe marginalised and establishment of absolute control of nature in the serviceof humans. In such cases, justice and harmony, although ostensibly present,might actually be far from view. But the ecological justice movement advocatesDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest12 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityfor nature to be recognised as part of our shared community. Still, while theconcept of ecological justice can be useful in helping to reorient us away fromanthropocentrism, it must include humans and their various socio-political andcultural concerns if it is to mean anything at all. This is further demonstratedby author Ashwini More, whose spotlight explores how heritage water systemsin India that were initially designed with ecology in mind have drasticallychanged over time, thanks to colonisation and shifting power dynamics.In Chapter 4, Socio-Ecological Justice, the final chapter in this principle,the spotlights highlight instances of injustice in historically marginalisedcommunities in Colombia (including the campesino, afro-descendant, andindigenous) and how their interconnected relationships with water, nature, andtheir territories offer a pathway towards true justice for all beings.1Rocio Manzano Quintero and Natalia Duque underline the limitations of theneoliberal and anthropocentric approach towards justice and instead advocatefor SEJ that enmeshes ‘all subjects’ of nature and society (Pope et al., 2021).Through an SEJ lens, we can recognise the relationality and contextualityof multiple dimensions within justice. Thus, we can attempt to create a linkbetween redistribution and cultural recognition plus political participation ofthe excluded and silenced (Zwarteveen & Boelens, 2014). Rocio writes from herperspective as a campesina community leader, bringing voice and visibility toher community’s issues.In an attempt to highlight hidden voices, we also present four videos in thischapter, in which members of campesino, afro-descendant, and indigenouscommunities share their experiences directly. Through these first-handaccounts, we bear witness to the importance of kinship when it comes to theinterconnected human–nature relationship, the fight to defend one’s territory(and everything in it), and ways to incorporate socio-ecological justice as amain principle of water security.REFERENCESBakker K. (2010). Privatizing Water: Governance Failure and the World’s Urban WaterCrisis. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, US. https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801467004/privatizing-water/ (accessed 22 April 2024)Baxter B. (2005). A Theory of Ecological Justice, 1st edn. Routledge, Abingdon,Oxfordshire, UK. https://www.routledge.com/A-Theory-of-Ecological-Justice/Baxter/p/book/9780415758543 (accessed 22 April 2024)Blanco Moreno C. and Peña Varón M. (2023). Relationship between community watermanagement, conceptions, and struggles for justice in Southwest Colombia,Environmental Justice, 16(3), 230–243, https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2022.0065Boelens R., Perreault T. and Vos J. (eds.) (2018). Water Justice. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, UK, https://doi.org/10.1017/97813168318471 Campesino: while this term translates to ‘peasants’ in English, it encompasses a specificdemographic of rural smallholder farmers in Latin America. As such, the Spanish termwill be utilised throughout the book.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestJustice – introduction 13Franco J., Mehta L. and Veldwisch G. J. (2013). The global politics of water grabbing.Third World Quarterly, 34(9), 1651–1675, https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2013.843852Fraser N. (2008). Scales of Justice: Reimagining Political Space in A Globalizing World.Columbia University Press, New York, US. https://cup.columbia.edu/book/scalesof-justice/9780231146807 (accessed 22 April 2024)Furman G. C. and Gruenewald D. A. (2004). Expanding the landscape of social justice:a critical ecological analysis. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(1), 47–76,https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X03259142Halsey M. and White R. (1998). Crime, ecophilosophy and environmental harm. TheoreticalCriminology, 2(3), 345–371, https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480698002003003Hamedi A. (2014). The Concept of Justice in Greek Philosophy (Plato and Aristotle).Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(27), 1163–1167, https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n27p1163Hunt D. V. and Shahab Z. (2021). Sustainable water use practices: understanding andawareness of Masters level students. Sustainability, 13(19), 1–29, https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910499Joshi D. (2015). Like water for justice. Geoforum, 61, 111–121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.02.020Joy K. J., Kulkarni S., Roth D. and Zwarteveen M. (2014). Re-politicising watergovernance: exploring water re-allocations in terms of justice. Local Environment,19(9), 954–973, https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2013.870542Karunananthan M. (2019). Can the human right to water disrupt neoliberal waterpolicies in the era of corporate policy-making? Geoforum, 98, 244–253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2018.07.013Kopnina H. (2014). Environmental justice and biospheric egalitarianism: reflecting ona normative-philosophical view of human-nature relationship. Earth Perspectives,1(8), https://doi.org/10.1186/2194-6434-1-8McGregor D., Whitaker S. and Sritharan M. (2020). Indigenous environmental justice andsustainability. Environmental Sustainability, 43, 35–40, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2020.01.007O’Donnell E. (2020). Rivers as living beings: rights in law, but no rights to water? GriffithLaw Review, 29(4), 643–668, https://doi.org/10.1080/10383441.2020.1881304Parsons M., Fisher K. and Crease R. P. (2021). Decolonising Blue Spaces in theAnthropocene. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, Switzerland. https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/47268 (accessed 22 April 2024)Pope K., Bonatti M. and Sieber S. (2021). The what, who and how of socio-ecologicaljustice: tailoring a new justice model for earth system law. Earth System Governance,10, 100124, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2021.100124Rutt R. L. and Gulsrud N. M. (2016). Green justice in the city: a new agenda for urbangreen space research in Europe. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 19, 123–127,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.07.004Shoreman-Ouimet E. and Kopnina H. (2015). Culture and Conservation:Beyond Anthropocentrism, 1st edn. Routledge, London, UK, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315858630Sultana F. (2018). Water justice: why it matters and how to achieve it. Water International,43(4), 483–493, https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2018.1458272Ulloa A. (2017). Perspectives of environmental justice from indigenous peoples of LatinAmerica: a relational indigenous environmental justice. Environmental Justice,10(6), 175–180, https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2017.0017Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest14 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityWijsman K. and Berbés-Blázquez M. (2022). What do we mean by justice in sustainabilitypathways? Commitments, dilemmas, and translations from theory to practice innature-based solutions. Environmental Science & Policy, 136, 377–386, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.06.018Yaka Ö. (2020). Justice as relationality: socio-ecological justice in the context of antihydropower movements in Turkey. Die Erde: Journal of the Geographical Societyof Berlin, 151(2–3), 167–180, https://doi.org/10.12854/erde-2020-481Zwarteveen M. Z. and Boelens R. (2014). Defining, researching and struggling forwater justice: some conceptual building blocks for research and action. WaterInternational, 39(2), 143–158, https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2014.891168Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_00015© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Carolina Blanco Moreno, Wan Asiah Nurjannah Wan Ahmad Tajuddinand Nasser TuqanThe just recognition and representation of water users and watershed inhabitantsthroughout the processes of planning, assessment, and management is key toensuring social justice in water security. In this chapter, the authors presentcase studies in which a lack of recognition and representation has systemicallyled to disparities in Colombia, Malaysia, and Palestine. They also offeralternative pathways through which members of the public might be included indecision-making and communities as a whole might be empowered, promotingthe sustainability of water systems as well as improving the evaluation andmanagement of these systems.1.1 ASSOCIATIVITY FOR THE RECOGNITION OF COMMUNITY WATERMANAGEMENT, COLOMBIACarolina Blanco MorenoCommunity water management (CWM) is a traditional way of using andmanaging water for human consumption at the local rural level, as practisedby community-based organisations (CBOs).1 In rural areas of Latin Americaand the Caribbean, CBOs are the main providers of drinking water: there areabout 80 000 CBOs providing water and sanitation services to approximately70 million people in rural areas in the region (Arrojo, 2022). In Colombia, theseorganisations emerged in the mid-20th century in response to the population’spressing need for wider access to water; state and international organisationssubsequently promoted them, as part of programme implementation in LatinChapter 1Social justice – recognitionand representation1 For ease of reading, community water management organisations (CWMOs) and CBOsare used interchangeably throughout the book.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest16 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityAmerica, financed by the Inter-American Development Bank and the WorldBank in the 60 s, and through a Colombian institutional framework to promotesocial participation and territorial decentralization in the 90 s. CBOs are nonprofit and based on solidarity, with diverse funding schemes.Thanks to community organisational processes, CBOs have becomeresponsible for water management at a local level throughout rural Colombia,not only ensuring the provision of water for human consumption but also theprotection and conservation of water sources. Authors like Pérez-Rincón (2002)assert that CBOs display ‘good performance’ when it comes to water provision;others praise the central role they have assumed in guaranteeing water provisionin remote areas, supporting the UN-recognised Human Right to Water andSanitation (HRWS) for rural and peri-urban populations (Ombudsman’s Office,2013). However, CBOs still experience various difficulties in guaranteeing thisright, mainly with regard to water safety and quality, because they can counton only limited investment, support, and recognition from the Colombiangovernment. In addition, CBOs encounter problems due to their lack offormal structure and the limited resources available to them for operation andmaintenance tasks.The struggle for recognitionThe current regulatory framework for the provision of public services (Law142/1994) was designed for a profit and/or urban model (Congress of theRepublic of Colombia, 1994). The community aspect of CBOs remains outsidethis scope. Although the Colombian government has made some legislativearrangements that include different perspectives in the provision of publicservices (Decree 1898 of 2016) and recognise alternative solutions for watersupply for human consumption in rural areas, it has not established a specificcategory for CBOs, based on characteristics such as their community, solidarity,and non-profit status (the different perspectives included by the governmentwere based on geography, i.e. municipal and dispersed rural areas).In addition, CBOs face multiple conflicts within their territories, includingdisagreements among their own partners, with other neighbouring CBOs, andwith other actors who use water differently. As a result, while CBOs play acentral role in local conflict resolution, they also sometimes carry out acts ofresistance and denunciation against the affectation of common goods and theviolation of the HRWS for their inhabitants.Associativity as a pathway to recognitionAs a way to (re)gain power in the face of privatisation threats and dismissalof the CBO management model by the state, many CBOs have implementeda framework of associativity. ‘Associativity’ can be understood as the processby which CBOs ally themselves with other organisations in an attempt tostrengthen their position and increase recognition. This process can take placeat different levels – local, regional, national, and transnational – resulting inthe development of diverse forms of organisation to facilitate the allies’ jointactions to achieve their objectives (Blanco Moreno, 2023).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 17In Colombia, the first CBO associations arose in the late 20th and early21st centuries. Currently, two organisations supporting associativity arepresent at the national level: the Colombian Confederation of CommunityOrganisations of Water and Sanitation Services (COCSASCOL) and Colombia’sNational Network of Community Water Management Organisations (RNAC).COCSASCOL was established in 2015 and aims to strengthen the CWM modelvia increased representation and political advocacy in public policies at theinstitutional level. RNAC emerged in 2011 to defend public ownership and theprinciples of CWM.These associations at the national level are, in turn, part of networks at theinternational level. COCSASCOL is part of the Latin American Confederationof Community Organisations of Water and Sanitation Services (CLOCSAS),created in 2012: its purpose is to promote the associativity of CBOs acrossLatin America and the Caribbean and to increase the visibility of CWM. RNACis part of the Inter-American Surveillance Network for the Defence and Rightto Water (Red VIDA), formed in 2003 to uphold water as a public good and afundamental right, and to defend against privatisation.COCSASCOL and RNAC are integrated into regional groups, in turnstrengthening CBO associations at the local level. This process of articulation inColombia can be seen in Figure 1.1. In the Valle del Cauca region, there are tworegional association processes: the Association of Community OrganisationsProviding Water and Sanitation Services of Colombia (Aquacol) and theFederation of Rural Community Water Supplies of Valle del Cauca (FECOSER).Aquacol, which is a member of COCSASCOL (thus bridging the gapbetween the regional and national levels), is itself made up of 37 local CBOs.Aquacol aims to contribute to improvements in the provision of public waterand sanitation services among CBOs in Colombia. Meanwhile, FECOSER,which is a member of RNAC (at the national level), is made up of 124 localCBOs. FECOSER aims to defend everyone’s right to water, contribute to theconservation of water resources, and promote the rational use of water. Aquacolsupports one municipal association and FECOSER 10 municipal associations.Thus, Aquacol and FECOSER promote associativity at a local level, withthe goal of improving overall CWM and political advocacy, such as in theirrespective municipal development plans.Success of associativityAll these associative processes across various levels, which have been interwovenover the past two decades, have ultimately allowed these associations of CBOsto be recognised as legitimate interlocutors across the same range of levels –local, regional, national, and international.At the national level, thanks to the organisations’ dogged pursuit ofrecognition, alongside their focus on bringing the national government’sattention to the targets of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, a NationalCommunity Water Management Board was formed in Colombia in August 2019.This entity includes representatives from both the Vice Ministry of Water andSanitation of Colombia and representatives from CBO associations, supportingthe participation of CBOs in public policies.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest18 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityFigure 1.1 Locations and interconnection of associative networks. (Credit: rootsandwings.design)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 19In this way, CBO associations have managed to influence the definitionof and modifications to legislation that improves the recognition of CWM, ascaptured in Table 1.1.In addition to this, RNAC developed a bill (in a participatory fashion with itsCBOs) that was filed in the Congress of the Republic as Bill 271/22, declaringthat: ‘By means of which the mechanisms of protection of the right to communitywater management, the related environmental aspects are guaranteed and alegal framework is established for the relations of the communities organisedfor the community management of water with the State.’At the international level, CBO associations have also influenced therecognition of CBOs as key actors to guarantee the human right to water. This isevident in the last two reports submitted by UN special rapporteurs on HRWS,which state that CBOs ‘offer valuable lessons for democratic water governancebased on a human rights approach, participation, and collective responsibility’(Arrojo, 2022) and that they ‘[should] also play monitoring roles’ (Heller, 2020).ConclusionAssociativity has contributed to wider recognition of CBOs after more thantwo decades of struggle. Arguably, CBOs’ strategy of associativity reflectsindigenous environmental justice in its three dimensions, as defined by Fraser(2013): redistribution, concerning the right of all human beings and otherforms of life to water resources; representation, the right to participate inTable 1.1 Advancements in the recognition of CBOs (Credit: Carolina Blanco Moreno).Law Advancement in the Recognition of CBOsDecree 819 of2020Rural subsidy for CBOs during the pandemic and the possibilityof concluding public–community agreements, in which entitiescan contribute public resources without affecting the assets of thecommunity organisationDecree 1210 of2020Inclusion of small-scale animal husbandry and irrigated cultivationfor family subsistence in the category of accepted water uses withthe right to access water in scattered rural dwellingsResolution 0288of 2020Incorporation in development plans of monitoring indicatorsrelated to access to and supply of water in rural areasDecree 1688 of2020Direct delivery of provision of infrastructure for water for humanconsumption to CBOsDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest20 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitythe construction and development of the regulatory and legal framework ofwater management; and recognition, the quest to be recognised and respectedlike other forms of management. CBOs have ultimately followed a trajectoryof vindication, harnessing their particular characteristics, which correspondto their unique worldviews, in order to create and endorse a new form ofadministration and management of water.1.2 ACCESS AND JUSTICE: AN EVALUATION OF PUBLICPARTICIPATION IN WATER AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING INMALAYSIAWan Asiah Nurjannah Wan Ahmad TajuddinThis case study explores the link between access to information and proceduraljustice via public participation. Public participation can serve three purposes:consensus and stability, conflict reduction and increased consciousness,and containment and bargaining (Dola & Mijan, 2006). Ultimately, publicparticipation is founded on the right to be informed (Lee & Sun, 2018). Thisis the first crucial step to take before further participation processes, such asdiscussion, debates, engagements, and feedback, can occur. Public participationprogrammes are often related to procedural justice (Yuan, 2021) and areconsidered vital to democracy.In any physical development plan for an area, one of the most crucial aspectsis undoubtedly water. Degraded water quality, insufficient water availability, andpoor sanitation measures are major challenges in planning. Water-related disastersare also an important issue: when planning major infrastructure in vulnerableareas, it is often mandated to carefully consider the risks posed by floods, coastalerosion, or drought, so as to ensure resilience. In essence, recognising andaddressing the multifaceted challenges associated with water supply, sanitation,and disaster preparedness are integral components of responsible and sustainabledevelopment planning. A conscientious approach to these issues not onlysafeguards the natural environment but also upholds the rights and well-being ofthe communities directly affected by these development plans.Public participation in Malaysia’s water planningMalaysia’s planning system has three tiers: the National Physical Plan (nationallevel), the State Structure Plan (state level), and the District Local Plan (districtlevel). Special areas also have Special Area Plans. All of these plans usuallycover a period of between five and 20 years. Before the plans can be publishedand implemented by planning authorities and developers, however, they haveto meet several requirements. One such requirement is public participation.In Malaysia, public participation is regarded as a critical component of theplanning process, particularly during the formulation and drafting stages ofdevelopment plans. Indeed, the authorities don’t just invite public participationfor publicity; they actively gather and consider community objections, changes,and proposals. Malaysian law, as set out in Sections 9 and 13 of the Town andCountry Planning Act 1976 (TCPA) (Malaysian Government, 1976), requiresDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 21drafts of local and state structure plans to be publicly disseminated. Thislegal provision enforces transparency and inclusivity in the planning process,ensuring that the perspectives of stakeholders are not only acknowledged butalso communicated to those responsible for finalising the plans.Figure 1.2 shows what is required of the publicity methods outlined in theTCPA, 1976, including the method of publicity, the duration of the publicityperiod, and the subsequent steps to be taken by the local planning authorities.However, it must be said that, despite the legal provision, the current informationdissemination system is rather outdated. For example, in the digital age, withreadership of newspapers constantly declining, this is no longer the best ormost relevant option to publicise information – indeed, many media outletshave ceased printing and moved to online platforms (Kobiruzzaman & AhmadGhazali, 2022). Fortunately, in recent years, there has been a shift towardsannouncing public participation programmes online and displaying the plansvia a dedicated web portal.When development plans enter the public participation process, membersof the public often seek information on strategies for fulfilling water demandand supply, steps to improve the water quality of a region/area, infrastructureprovision within the area, and plans to reduce water-related risks. Butannouncements of public participation programmes made through irrelevantchannels may not reach the communities that the development plans willimpact. These communities, especially the most marginalised individualswithin them, have the right to be fully aware of the developments taking placeFigure 1.2 Requirements of publicity methods, as established in TCPA, 1976 (Credit: LiviaDouse).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest22 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityaround them and the steps they can take at the community level to improve theirsurroundings. The absence of easily accessible data has the potential to worsenthe marginalisation experienced by certain communities, thereby contributingto their disempowerment. And this disempowerment hinders the communities’capacity to make well-informed decisions and undertake necessary actions tosafeguard their water rights. Moreover, it diminishes their level of influence indecision-making procedures, allowing others to make choices that disregardtheir unique social and ecological requirements in ways that perpetuatesystemic challenges. Information disparity is intricately interconnected withthe perpetuation of injustice, as flawed democratic processes amplify existinggaps and intensify the suffering of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups.Perspectives on the public participation programmesGiven the challenges outlined above, we wanted to get the perspective ofmembers of the public. As such, we spoke with three individuals who had allrecently taken part in a public participation programme. What follows are theirviews on the process, translated from Malay into English – you can also readtheir views on our interactive map (Figure 1.3).Person ALocation: SediliDistrict: Kota TinggiState: Johor, Peninsular MalaysiaProgramme duration: 18 December 2022 to 18 January 2023‘Person A’, who did not want to be named, did not participate in any on-siteevents. They stumbled upon the programme when visiting the PLANMalaysiaoffice in Johor Bahru. Johor Bahru is the state capital of Johor, the southernmoststate in Peninsular Malaysia, with Singapore just across the border. However,the development plan in question was being drafted for Sedili, located in thenorth-west of the state, in the district of Kota Tinggi. Sedili is a thriving touristspot, known for its beaches. Kota Tinggi is a main water catchment area inJohor; its water is brought to the Seluyut dam and the Sungai Gembut barrageand water treatment plant.When Person A visited PLANMalaysia’s office, the Draft Special Area Planof Sedili, a copy of the executive summary, a brochure, and a feedback formto be filled out by anyone who wished to leave a comment were all on display.Person A said that Sedili was unfamiliar to them, so they did not feel obligatedto comment on the draft.In their opinion, ‘The programme gave a good platform for those who wishedto do so … The PLANMalaysia staff also informed us that aside from theiroffice, the public participation programme was also held by the beach to attractattention from the local communities. I am unsure if they [PLANMalaysia]received sufficient feedback from the public. Still, the efforts at making peoplemore aware are commendable.’When asked whether the information provided was comprehensive enough tomake people aware of issues pertaining to water, Person A answered, ‘In termsDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 23of water supply and sanitation, I am not a local, thus may not know about theseareas. However, based on the Special Area Plan provided, there were effortsto strategise integrated river basin management and the management of beachareas … I think the plans for water are in one place, but I am not sure how farFigure 1.3 Map showing locations of participants. Click the map to view the interactiveversion (Credit: Samy Mafla Noguera and Livia Douse).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest24 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitythe communities understand what is being planned. I know they are planningfor something, but I don’t know how to detail it to other community members.’While Person A commended the programme for offering a platform for publicengagement, they highlighted a potential justice concern: that the programme,though well-intentioned, seemed to lack inclusivity. This is apparent in the factthat Person A, a non-local, felt unsure about whether they were well-placed or evenobligated to comment on the draft. This raises questions about the accessibilityand outreach of the programme, especially for individuals who do not reside inthe area to be developed but may be affected by the planned developments. Thepotential justice concern becomes more pronounced when considering PersonA’s uncertainty about the local communities’ understanding of water-relatedplans, indicating a need for more comprehensive efforts to bridge the informationgap and ensure equitable participation in the decision-making process.Person BLocation: PendangDistrict: PendangState: Kedah, Peninsular MalaysiaProgramme duration: 26 December 2022 to 26 January 2023‘Person B’, who also declined to be named, grew up in Pendang, in the stateof Kedah. Kedah, in northern Peninsular Malaysia, is the country’s main riceproducer, with thousands of acres of paddy fields across the state. Rice fromthe paddy crops is a staple food for the vast majority of Asian people. As aresult, many nations in this region view it as a strategic crop that guaranteesboth political stability and economic growth. Indeed, paddy and rice have beenMalaysia’s primary sources of self-sufficiency (Firdaus et al., 2020). Generally, ittakes up to 5000 litres of water to produce 1 kg of rice; continuous water supplyis therefore very important. Additionally, it should be stated that most paddyfields are multifunctional, performing flood control, erosion control, and waterpurification. At present, there are serious concerns that Kedah’s current policy willnot be able to mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture, particularlyrice production. Extreme climate variance poses significant challenges for paddyproductivity in Peninsular Malaysia, creating concerns around food security aswell (Firdaus et al., 2020). It is therefore important that such issues, and how alllevels of government are addressing such concerns, are communicated to thepublic to ensure the protection of the livelihood of communities across Malaysia.Despite growing up in Pendang, Person B had moved out of their parentalhome to live in another state. They chose to take part in the public participationprogramme using the online platform. When asked if they found it easy to access,Person B responded, ‘Yes, it’s comprehensive and complete documentationwith much information, especially for the public viewer.’ However, Person Balso wrote that ‘there is a lack of awareness and outreach. The informationshould be conveyed directly to the population area (e.g., announcement byvillage head, memos, public announcement).’Moreover, speaking specifically about the modes of outreach, Person B alsoexpressed, ‘This (the online platform) is a good start but it is not reaching outDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 25to meet most people and will lack public opinion, especially the local people.Feedback from the affected population is valuable and important.’ Person Bbelieved that water security is key to sustainable development, especially inKedah, but did not see any strategies to improve water supply or environmentalconservation in the development plan.Person B also provided feedback on the development plan. Their comment,which shows an awareness of the environmental impact of the plan, read:‘Kindly ensure the development project will also cover associated factors suchas deforestation, river sedimentation, and imbalance in the water supply. Weare already experiencing low water pressure, but we hope this can be resolvedquickly, especially with an increase in users in the future (both residential andindustrial).’ Person B recognised the importance of the participatory processand believed the authorities would read and consider their comments becauseof the open feedback system.Considered in this context, Person B’s engagement reflects the justiceprinciple, emphasising the importance of inclusive outreach, communityawareness, and consideration of diverse perspectives in the developmentplanning process for equitable and sustainable outcomes. However, while PersonB expressed confidence that their comments would be considered, it remains tobe seen whether the feedback will actually be integrated into, or influence, thedevelopment plan. The process needs to become more transparent.Mr FirdausLocation: TumpatDistrict: TumpatState: Kelantan, Peninsular MalaysiaProgramme duration: 25 January 2023 to 25 February 2023Mr Firdaus had many positive things to say about the programme he hadattended in Tumpat. Tumpat, in the state of Kelantan, is a district located onthe east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which recently faced the worst flood inthe region for 31 years, as reported by many Malaysian media outlets (Bernama,2022). It is important to note how critical flood issues are in this area; publicparticipation programmes held in the area should therefore place this issueat the top of their agendas, informing the public on steps being taken in theplanning process, as well as alerting the communities to local actions that theycan take. Mr Firdaus commented:‘I participated in this programme in its entirety by visiting one of theexhibition spaces that had been set up at a specified location and time.In my case, I went to the local plan exhibition at Ndo Beach in Tumpat,Kelantan. I also took the initiative to spread the information I receivedto family, friends, and neighbours. I believe the programme is accessibleto the general population, as claimed since its inception. This initiativeincludes more than just announcements on official government websitesand social media: it entails opening mobile booths in densely populatedsites like public markets, mosques, and administrative buildings. VisitingDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest26 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitythe provided mobile booth makes it simpler for the general public toobtain information.’He continued:‘My personal opinion is that no group is being excluded from receivingthe information the government seeks to disseminate. I’m hoping thatthis organised programme will be well received by all members of society,regardless of their age, race, religion, or other socio-economic factors. Ibelieve this programme will benefit the entire community by providingvaluable information and enabling them to support any projects plannedfor the convenience of the community. Therefore, it is appropriate forthe government to expand and improve each programme involving thecommunity through specific organisations to increase their desire toparticipate in public participation programmes.’Mr Firdaus’s views suggest the programme in Tumpat was highly effective inreaching the community. The programme’s publicity efforts included exhibitingthe development plan in diverse locations, such as night markets and beaches. Theauthorities also reached out to the religious facility of this predominantly Muslimcommunity, including the mosque of which Mr Firdaus is a member. However, it isunclear whether they reached out to minority groups of other religious (Buddhist,Hindu, Christian) or ethnic (Siamese, Chinese, Indian) backgrounds who residein the area and may be impacted by the development plan.It should be noted that Mr Firdaus was less positive about water issues:‘The problems associated with water, in my opinion, have not been discussedin greater detail. Many aspects of this water issue have not been thoroughlyexplained to all communities.’ He concluded, ‘the government should organisemore public participation programmes that focus solely on water issues.’Considering that the area is prone to floods, Mr Firdaus’s observationindicates a communication or awareness gap. This communication gap raisesconcerns about the equitable distribution of resources and the potential forvulnerable communities to be disproportionately affected by water-relatedchallenges. Further efforts should be made to foster transparent and inclusivedialogues and ensure all stakeholders are well-informed and actively engaged indeveloping comprehensive solutions to address the flood threats that are proneto happen in the region. Involving local stakeholders, experts, and decisionmakers in participatory workshops and community-based engagement methodscan result in more efficient and enduring flood risk mitigation strategies(Oyediran & Wahab, 2023).Public participation processes: a new frameworkA new framework is needed to ensure procedural justice is achieved and tomake the public participation process open and accessible to all. We present thefollowing questions as a template for this framework (Figure 1.4):To enhance justice in water planning, the authorities must remain dedicatedto accountability, openness, and equity – and they have to actively want tointeract with the people who are impacted by the decision-making process. Asthings stand, the level of citizen participation in Malaysia is still at the tokenismDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 27level, as argued by Marzukhi et al. (2022), indicating a need to improve theexecution of citizen participation. There also needs to be more transparencyon whether the comments and objections made by the public are weightedand valued. Even if planning is supposedly participatory, the authorities’ finaldecisions may overrule objections made by members of the public withouttheir knowledge. The public needs to see how their thoughts and concernshave impacted the decisions to implement the plans. There should be follow-upprogrammes, not one-time events, to ensure the projects are socially andenvironmentally sustainable. Thus, the decision-making process will becomemore open, transparent, and ultimately successful.1.3 SOCIAL JUSTICE IN WATER SECURITY THROUGH SYSTEMSPERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT: THE CASES OF COLOMBIA ANDPALESTINENasser TuqanHolistically addressing water security based on systems thinking will allowfor increased water use efficiency, ensuring equitable flow of benefits (ESCAP,2013). Looking at water systems exclusively through the industrial lenses ofFigure 1.4 A framework for enhancing public participation processes (Credit: Livia Douse).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest28 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security‘water as economic good’ and productivity has increasingly been recognisedas dangerously flawed. There is no shortage of examples of when the failureto recognise the complexity of water systems has led to severe damage.These examples include: transboundary water disputes where upstream anddownstream nations clash over water allocation without fully grasping theintricate ecological, social, and political dynamics at play; and the frequentcases of mismanagement and diversion of water resources in several regionswhich resulted in environmental catastrophes and regional tensions amongthose sharing basins.Performance indicators in this context are not only easy to understand butcan also be widely applied. As Markic (2014) notes, using them in decisionmaking processes has long been effective. The classical definition of wateruse efficiency is the ratio of water beneficially used to the total applied. Inagriculture, it is the crop yield per unit of water used in irrigation, famouslyknown as ‘productivity’. However, these definitions, despite their overwhelmingpopularity, fail to address important issues such as irrigation water recovery,water reuse, and water quality, and they also do not distinguish between waterconsumption and water use (Haie & Keller, 2014; Jensen, 2007; Jensen et al.,1980; Pereira et al., 2012; Willardson et al., 1994). Incomplete and/or faultysystem representation leads to inequitable and unjust redistribution.These blind spots have caused water use efficiency experts, especiallyengineers, to neglect critical issues beyond the technical aspects of watersaving. Indeed, an explicit focus on social justice has been largely overlooked,particularly when it comes to addressing water-related issues. These issuesinclude the impact of water use systems (WUSs) on the sustainability ofwater sources, on downstream stakeholders, and on neighbouring systems;the WUSs’ resilience to major pressures (such as climate change); their socialand economic costs versus benefits; and the different stakeholder perspectiveson WUSs (e.g. residents versus policymakers). Attempts to overcome thoseshortcomings have so far mainly focused on the physical characteristics ofwater with little attention to social, economic, environmental, and politicalfactors.This case study illustrates how the assessment of water systems performancecan be a powerful instrument for advancing social justice. By emphasising thefundamental concepts of recognition, representation, and distribution (Fraser,2008), we aim to address the multifaceted dimensions of social injustice in therealm of water security. Our focus on recognition extends beyond technicalaspects, acknowledging and validating the diverse perspectives involved in aWUS. In addition, through our emphasis on true representation, we recognisethat diverse voices, often marginalised, should have a meaningful role indecision-making processes. Finally, the pursuit of redistribution addressesthe inequalities and disparities to ensure equitable distribution of water andbenefits.The three interconnected core precepts on which our approach will be basedare: systems thinking, social justice, and water balance. In reality, water is usedwithin WUSs that host many stakeholders governed by complex dynamics. Thislist of stakeholders (both human and non-human) includes those who live in,Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 29benefit from, and are affected by or make the decisions for these systems. There isa need to reframe models simulating WUSs to equitably represent stakeholders.Endeavours devoid of political considerations have tangible consequences, andevidently, injustice often leads to conflict, such as in the case of privatisingdrinking water in Cochabamba, Bolivia (Olivera & Lewis, 2004). Despite thecomplexity of WUS dynamics, nature offers a simple and consistent conceptthat must prevail in any given WUS: water balance.Sustainable efficiency (sefficiency)Water balance is key for equitable water security, and this is not limited toits hydrological definition. Sustainable efficiency (sefficiency), first introducedin 2012 (Haie & Keller, 2012), is a composite multi-level indicator that isfundamentally based on water balance. The most powerful feature of sefficiencyis that it weights water quantity, quality, and beneficence, with the latterreferring to the significance (beneficence) of water flow paths, as defined bythe system’s diverse stakeholders. To our mind, this inclusive approach makesa lot more sense than classical water system definitions such as productivity.To illustrate this, let’s look at three hypothetical farms (Figure 1.5), all ofwhich use the same amount of applied irrigation to produce the same amountof yield. According to productivity formulae, these farms are equally efficient.However, looking at farms 1 and 2, which both produce the same crop, throughthe lens of sefficiency produces different results: the efficiency of these farmscannot be identical, given that farm 1 discharges heavily polluted agriculturalwastewater. Applying the same lens to a comparison of farms 2 and 3 similarlyshows that their efficiency values cannot be identical as they produce differentcrops, even if they use the same amount of irrigation to produce the sameyield and comparable levels of agricultural wastewater. The crop that has aFigure 1.5 Hypothetical farm efficiencies: blue arrows represent irrigation applied to thefarms, brown and orange arrows represent agricultural wastewater flowing out of farms.(Credit: rootsandwings.design)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest30 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityhigher socio-economic value for WUS residents must be associated with higherefficiency on a systems level.As a water balance-based indicator, sefficiency requires every single waterpath flowing in or out of a WUS (Figure 1.6) to be defined. Such definitionsshould be fundamentally centred around the concept of recognition (Fraser’sjustice framework), acknowledging various identity groups, cultures, andexperiences. Systems could be defined geographically (e.g. by region or city),hydrologically (by basin or catchment area), culturally (by community or ethnicgroup), politically (by jurisdiction) or based on water use sectors (by urbanor agricultural use). Adapting sefficiency as a performance indicator throughstakeholder participation in the modelling process leads to a more realisticrepresentation, not only of the stakeholders within the WUS but also of theircomplex interactions and relationships. At its core, the concept of sefficiencyaims for inclusivity which, if achieved, will pave the way towards environmentalsustainability and social justice.It is imperative that we construct perspectives that are accountable to validand nuanced accounts of physical reality, while also being committed to socialjustice and action. To do so, each inflow or outflow path needs to be assigneda quality weighting reflecting its water quality parameters and a beneficenceweighting representing its beneficial value from the perspective of the watersystem user. Recognising more-than-human beings, such as water bodies, wildlife,and aquatic life, is also crucial, alongside identifying the socio-political andeconomic hierarchical processes that contribute to certain individuals beingmore marginalised than others. Accordingly, the idea here is to provide a tool thatcan convey hidden as well as apparent voices. Sefficiency creates space for theseperspectives, thus distinguishing itself from other attempts to address such issues.The formulae for sefficiencySefficiency assesses performance at three different levels, macro, meso, andmicro, which differ based on the dynamics between the WUS and its mainwater resource. Macro-sefficiency (MacroSE) assesses the impact of a WUS onFigure 1.6 Hypothetical WUS schematic including all water path types. (Credit:rootsandwings.design)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 31the main source. Meanwhile, meso-sefficiency (MesoSE) deals with the relationbetween micro and macro levels, indicating the impact of return instancesgenerated by the WUS; it examines, among other things, the impact of WUS ondownstream users, including ecosystems. Finally, micro-sefficiency (MicroSE)assesses the internal dynamics within a WUS; it does not consider the WUS’sreturns or impact on the main source (Haie, 2016; Haie & Keller, 2014).For the case studies under consideration in this spotlight, we are going totake sefficiency at the meso level. To calculate meso-level sefficiency, we use thefollowing equation:MesoSE ET NR i RF RPVA OS PP c RF RP s= + + ( ) ++ + ( ) + – (1.1)The annotation s reflects the usefulness criterion, which is the usefulportion of flows considering their quality and value weights (as calculatedin equation 1.2). The presence of i or c before the efficiency level indicatesthe model – iMesoSE means MesoSE calculated as in full inflow model, whilecMesoSE refers to MesoSE calculated as in consumption model. iMesoSE givesthe percentage of total useful inflow that is useful outflow, whereas cMesoSEprovides the percentage of efficient consumption that is useful consumption.X W XX W XW W WX W Xq qb bs b qs sXXX X XX= ×= ×= ×= ×(1.2)where:Xq: the quality dimension of XXb: the beneficial dimension of XWqX: the quality weight of XWbX: the beneficial weight of XWsX: the usefulness weight of XFurther details about the three different sefficiency levels, including proof ofequation (1.1), the distinction between inflow and consumption models, and thelink between these two totals and the saving mechanisms, can be found in themethod’s development publications (Haie & Keller, 2008, 2012).TECNiCAFÉColombia produces more coffee than any country in the world, except forBrazil and Vietnam (Ceballos-Sierra & Dall’Erba, 2021). In a country whereagriculture is a prominent sector, it is estimated that coffee constitutes 17% ofColombia’s overall crop production, making it the most valuable agriculturalproduct in the country (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012). However, climate changeis expected to impact the production of coffee in most parts of the globe,including Colombia (Iscaro, 2014).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest32 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityAnother of the key challenges for coffee farmers and commercial producersis that, until now, global coffee prices have been stable at relatively low rates.As such, the farmers and producers shifted most of their focus towards landand water use productivity (yield per unit of applied irrigation) (Sachs et al.,2019). The important factor to notice here is that decisions around water useand farming practices are driven and managed by politics at various scales.When WUSs fail to pay attention to these complex networks, they hide socialinjustice.According to the National Federation of Colombian Coffee Farmers(Federación Nacional de Cafeteros), there are more than 600 000 farmersgrowing coffee across Colombia, and for most of them it is their only livelihood.The Cauca Department, located in the south-west of the country, is home tomore than 90 000 families cultivating over 93 000 hectares of Arabica coffee peryear. In Cajibío municipality in the heart of the Cauca Department (Figure 1.7),exceptional-quality coffee is produced at TECNiCAFÉ, which describes andconducts itself as an organisation whose mission is to carry out transformativeinnovation in the world of coffee – it focuses on obtaining high-quality coffeesthrough sustainable solutions. TECNiCAFÉ farmlands encompass an area ofaround 150 hectares or 1.5 km2. Part of this land is used for commercial coffeeproduction, while the rest is used for experiments.Cajibío and its neighbouring municipalities, especially in the northernpart of Cauca, have been suffering for decades from the effects of the deadlyarmed conflict in Colombia (Aguirre & Manyoma, 2019). This multifacetedconflict, which was fuelled by – and ultimately exacerbated – the severeinequity in resource distribution, especially regarding land and water, hasdisproportionately affected the poorest people in the most rural and remote areas(Meltzer & Rojas, 2005). Having signed an extremely fragile peace agreementFigure 1.7 Location of TECNiCAFÉ with respect to Cajibío municipality in south-westernColombia. (Credit: Livia Douse)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 33in 2016, Colombia has little choice but to pursue long-term environmentalsustainability objectives (Suarez et  al., 2018) through the representation ofhistorically suppressed voices to reinforce the prospect of peace.TECNiCAFÉ plays a significant role in the post-conflict landscape. Itincubates local coffee smallholder farmers (campesinos) who require postconflict support, such as those who were forcefully displaced, single mothers,and young ex-guerrillas.2We identified the coffee-growing cycle at TECNiCAFÉ as a WUS. Coffeeplants on site are rainfed with no form of applied irrigation needed. Thus, it is aWUS with a single inflow path. In any agricultural system, evapotranspiration(ET), or the amount of water the coffee plants consumptively use, is typicallythe most significant outflow. While constructing our water balance modelusing the data for the 2016 season as a case study, we estimated ET to bearound 0.36 million cubic metres (Mm3). On the other hand, precipitation(PP) in that season was around 3.16 Mm3, nearly nine times more. From aproductivity standpoint, these figures lead to a severely low performance, atan 11.4% productivity rate.Our original aim was to use sefficiency to assess the impacts of climate changeon the system’s performance. Thus, we looked at the World Bank’s ClimateChange Knowledge Portal (World Bank, n.d.) and used the temperature and PPprojections under two shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs), namely SSP1-1.9 and SSP2-4.5, for the periods of 2020–39 and 2040–59, comparing themwith the existing conditions (2016 season). SSP1-1.9 sets out the optimisticscenario, according to which the 1.5°C objective of the Paris Agreement isachieved, while SSP2-4.5, known as the middle-of-the-road scenario, representsa pathway where no significant improvements to the current situation are madeand climate change continues unchecked (IPCC, 2021).In our hypothesis, we had assumed that the projected changes in climaticconditions would have significant impacts on the system’s water balance andefficiency. However, the hydrological changes, especially in ET, and efficiencyrates under all future scenarios have shown a negligible impact of climatechange on TECNiCAFÉ’s operations. Under scenario SSP2-4.5 in 2020–39,for example, where minimum temperature increases by 3.8%, maximumtemperature increases by 2.7%, and PP decreases by 2.4%, performance ratesonly changed by 0.2 percentage points.So, TECNiCAFÉ’s performance is poor on the basis of productivity, andclimate change is not projected to change this in the next 40 years. But thesetraditional lenses fail to reveal the real story: they don’t have the capacity toinclude TECNiCAFÉ’s mission or its sustainable practices; for example, it only usesnatural solutions for soil and water management, such as mulching. In addition,they don’t reflect the perspectives of the historically marginalised campesinoswho benefit from the organisation as a business incubator (Figure 1.8).2 Campesino: while this term translates to ‘peasants’ in English, it encompasses a specificdemographic of rural smallholder farmers in Latin America. As such, the Spanish termwill be utilised throughout the book.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest34 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityThe real story can be told, however, using sefficiency. Through waterbalance, the notion that any precipitation that isn’t used to grow plants is‘wasted’ falls apart. Similarly, by considering water quality, the site’s avoidanceof chemicals gets the appreciation it deserves. Through assigning beneficencevalues to the different water flow paths, the hidden voices of those singlemothers, who lost their loved ones in violent conditions and were then offereda more hopeful chapter in life by working at TECNiCAFÉ, become audible in amathematical model. According to our sefficiency-based model, TECNiCAFÉscored 44%. Although the result indicates clear areas for improvement, itwas significantly more representative than the 11.4% generated by traditionalefficiency models.The Jordan ValleyThe agricultural sector in Palestine is undoubtedly deteriorating. Accordingto the World Bank, its contribution to the national gross domestic productdropped from 9.3% in 1999 to only 4% in 2012 (World Bank, 2012). Thiscan be demonstrably linked to the shortage of water. While the averageglobal agricultural water use was 68% of the total water withdrawn in 2014(WWAP, 2019), the Palestinian agricultural sector used less than 43% in 2015(PWA, 2017). In addition, the Israeli occupation of Gaza (27 October 2023–ongoing at time of publication) imposes severe territorial constraints that limitinvestment and infrastructural development in agriculture, causing significantfood insecurities among the Palestinian population. This reality is abundantlyclear in the Jordan Valley, home to 50% of the West Bank’s agricultural lands,on which 60% of Palestine’s total vegetables are produced (WAFA, 2015). ItFigure 1.8 Illustration of TECNiCAFÉ farm (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 35should be stated that 87% of the Palestinian part of the Jordan Valley fallsinto the category of Area C (EcoPeace Middle East, 2015), which is Israelicontrolled territory subject to substantial restrictions when it comes to landaccess, infrastructural works, and water resource development.Figure 1.9 Jericho Governorate (Credit: Nasser Tuqan).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest36 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityA key challenge in Palestine is the reliance on groundwater that is heavilyrestricted, severely low quality (especially in Gaza), and often weaponised.According to the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA), groundwater aquifers,which are the only accessible natural freshwater resource for the Palestinians,make up more than 95% of their total supplies (PWA, 2017). However,groundwater is a highly unstable water source, vulnerable to climate change.Moreover, due to population growth and acute irregularities in urbandevelopment, influenced by the geopolitical complexities, Palestinians havebeen over-pumping from their wells at unsustainable rates. For instance, theabstraction rate from the Eastern Aquifer Basin (EAB) increased from 23 Mm3in 2003 (Lautze & Kirshen, 2009) to 42 Mm3 in 2011 (PWA, 2012), then to53 Mm3 in 2012 (PWA, 2013), and finally to nearly 65 Mm3 in 2015, accordingto the last published PWA update (PWA, 2017).Agricultural activities in the Palestinian part of the Jordan Valley, particularlyin the Jericho Governorate (which constitutes more than 70% of the valley’s totalarea), were defined as our WUS. These activities are, by far, the largest user ofEAB abstractions. According to PWA official reports, farmers in Jericho used24.2 Mm3 (57.6%) out of the abstracted 42 Mm3 during the 2010/11 season (PWA,2012). These abstractions were used to irrigate 80 different field crops, trees, andvegetables, ranging over 36.3 km2 of farmlands (Figure 1.9) (PCBS, 2012).There are a vast number of stakeholders that can be identified here. Forthis study, however, we were interested in the dynamics of water resourcemanagement, and therefore chose to focus on the difference in perspectivesbetween the farmers and the water managers. To that end, we interviewedthe Director General of Water Resources Management at PWA, Eng. TheebAbdelghafour, and surveyed a random sample of 40 local farmers. This selectionof farmers considered both population density and geographic distributionacross the study area. For instance, 30% of the sample were farmers fromJericho City, which is the area of the highest density; another 30% were fromthe northern villages (green areas in the north, as shown in Figure 1.9); and theremaining 40% were from the remaining villages across the governorate.Building a hydrological model to establish water balance is the finalstep before calculating sefficiency results. When we did so in this case, weconclusively found that crop water demand (required irrigation) during thatseason to meet the recorded agricultural activities must be at least 14.4 Mm3(60%) more than PWA-reported abstractions from EAB. This major findingexposed a severely alarming reality: the hydrological model only indicates theminimum missing quantity from what is reported. Although what was actuallyabstracted from EAB will never be known, it is most certainly higher than thereported (24.2 Mm3) and unreported (14.4 Mm3) abstractions combined. This isbecause water losses in irrigation always occur.Abdelghafour confirmed this finding and explained that a substantialnumber of unregistered wells and springs can be found on old and familyinherited properties, which farmers do not report in fear of closure. This issuecan be viewed through the lens of legality and regulations, reflecting negativelyon the Palestinian authorities, especially in the context of weaponisation ofwater due to the occupation. However, the indisputable reality is that peopleDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 37need water to grow and produce their food. Those farmers did not dig a well intheir backyard to fill in a swimming pool; they are instead victims of a failedgovernment, a brutal occupation, or a combination of both (Figure 1.10).In the Jordan Valley case, the question of the system’s sefficiency figuresbecame irrelevant, and rather invalid, as soon as we had embarked on the resultsof the water balance model. In a WUS where reported abstractions are muchless than what is being used, the entire narrative shifts from performance andefficiency into unpacking the reality of dire and, in this case, unjust conditions.The system’s characterisation in its hydrological sense through water balance,which is a fundamental preliminary step in calculating sefficiency, became atool to depict the reality of those who live in the system.The water balance-based approach exposes this inconvenient reality,uncovering the misery of the status quo and the utter hopelessness of anentire population due to a century of conflict and the current occupation.This is just another example of people figuring out solutions to meet theirunmet demands. Critically, however, the sustainability of EAB is in question,especially considering the absence of collaboration under the existing politicalatmosphere, as well as climate change projections of an even drier future in thispart of the world.ConclusionWater indicators, including water use efficiency, are double-edged swords.On one hand, they can be used effectively to signify the state of progress ina WUS, saving time and effort for many implicated actors. They can also beused as a powerful vehicle to deliver complex ideas in an incredibly simpleformat. On the other hand, there is no shortage of examples where commonreductive indicators are used by powerful actors to further exclusion andFigure 1.10 Illustration of Jordan Valley (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest38 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityunderrepresentation. The use of the latter indicators is not the way forwardif we are to hear the voices of a poor single mother campesina in Cajibío or astruggling, oppressed tomato farmer in Jericho.Conflicts often drive destruction, oppression, and severe inequality, leadingto further injustices. Whether in Latin America or the Middle East, thosepains are not only felt in combat zones but also in WUSs. Interestingly, theColombian campesina and the Palestinian farmer will have quite similar storiesof land confiscation, territorial disputes, forced displacement, water accessrestrictions, and yield erosion. One would imagine that these obstacles couldbe addressed if their voices were heard. However, it is apparent that many of thepowers that be in technology and administration have recurrently overlookedthe importance of representing such voices. It is no secret that engineeringtraining is fundamentally centred around creativity in problem-solving overscrutinising problem characterisation and representation of key actors.Sefficiency is an attempt to call for a more just approach to calculating andmodelling water use efficiency. However, scaling such inclusive tools, whetherthey be sefficiency or something similar, either through adoption, scrutiny,or recreation, represents a quest to revolutionise the status quo. Traditionalapproaches have long been in place, even if they are quite reductive to ourunderstanding of WUSs and their dynamics and interactions. One mustobviously think of water use within systems, and systems thinking adds acertain complexity, dynamicity, and interdependence, which a human brainoften tries to avoid (Anderson & Johnson, 1997). As indicated by the casesof TECNiCAFÉ and the Jordan Valley, systems-level performance assessmentsshould consider water balance, quality, and beneficence dimensions. These arenot just commendable concepts; they are fundamental components of WUSs, ifthese systems are to support social justice.In its application, sefficiency allows for flexibility, challenging the notionthat every scenario requires the detailed estimation of micro-, meso-, ormacro-sefficiency. A tangible example is seen in the Jordan Valley, wherethe construction of a water balance model reveals profound insights withoutnecessitating exhaustive efficiency calculations. This underlines a broaderconcept – particularly relevant in severely water-scarce systems – thatunderstanding the dynamics of the system may outweigh the emphasis onoverall efficiency.3Sefficiency, however, does not aim to provide an all-encompassing solutionthat absolves water managers and engineers from concerns about genuinerepresentation. Instead, it offers a valuable perspective to stakeholders, urgingthem to recognise the importance of adopting a systems-thinking approach. Whilesefficiency is not presented as a catch-all solution, it serves as a starting pointfor ongoing improvement. One avenue involves adopting a more participatoryapproach: engaging stakeholders in the refinement process can contributeessential breadth to the model. Additionally, incorporating economic games3 See Tugan et  al. (2020) for the sefficiency application in Jordan Valley, includingtechnical details.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 39(Thielmann et al., 2021) into the methodology can prove instrumental in refiningthe representation of the socio-economic benefits in the sefficiency model.In this spotlight, both case studies show how important it is to represent thehidden voices within WUSs in a systemic and engineering-based framework.This might appear to be a no-brainer that should be adopted and applied at manylevels, including policymaking. However, to lay the essential foundations forthis inclusive approach, substantial efforts are needed – at the grassroots levelas well as in academia, non-profit organisations, for-profit corporations, andgovernmental entities. We will then be able to build upon this foundation tofoster a more comprehensive and equitable representation of voices within WUSs,promoting a collaborative environment that spans diverse sectors of society.Despite some room for improvement, sefficiency serves as a compellingcall to action for practitioners, engineers, and academics, especially thoserooted in physical and natural sciences. It encourages us consider the oftenoverlooked voices within WUSs. This call goes beyond an ethical imperative;it resonates with the fundamental principle of doing what is right. Recognisingand representing these hidden voices is not just a moral responsibility but acrucial step towards establishing more equitable redistribution and sustainablewater management practices, ensuring that the intricacies of these systems arenot only acknowledged but woven into the fabric of decision-making processes.REFERENCESAguirre E. and Manyoma P. (2019). Agricultural supply chains prioritization fordevelopment of affected areas by the Colombian conflict. In: Advanced Studies inMulti-Criteria Decision Making, S. B. Amor, A. T. de Almedia, J. L. de Miranda andE. Aktas (eds.), 1st edn. Chapman and Hall/CRC, New York, US, 111–121, https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315181363Anderson V. and Johnson L. (1997). Systems Thinking Basics: From Concepts toCausal Loops. Pegasus Communications, Westford, Massachusetts, US. https://people.sabanciuniv.edu/atilgan/CEM-Spring17/Books/6.Anderson-Johnson_SystemsThinkingBasics.pdf (accessed 22 April 2024)Arrojo P. A. (2022). Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation of People inImpoverished Rural Areas. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rightsto safe drinking water and sanitation, A/77/167, UN Human Rights Office of theHigh Commissioner, Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/a77167-human-rights-safe-drinking-water-and-sanitation-people(accessed 19 April 2024)Bernama. (2022). ‘Tumpat residents facing ‘worst flood in 31 years’’. New Straits Times,19 December. https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2022/12/862404/tumpatresidents-facing-worst-flood-31-years (accessed 19 April 2024)Blanco Moreno C. (2023). La asociatividad: una estrategia para el fortalecimiento y elreconocimiento de la gestión comunitaria del agua en el Valle del Cauca, Colombia(Associativity: A strategy for the strengthening and recognition of communitywater management in Valle del Cauca, Colombia). PhD thesis, EnvironmentalSciences, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia.Ceballos-Sierra F. and Dall’Erba S. (2021). The effect of climate variability on Colombiancoffee productivity: a dynamic panel model approach. Agricultural Systems, 190,103126, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103126Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest40 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityCongress of the Republic of Colombia. (1994). Ley 142 de 1994: Por la cual se estableceel régimen de los servicios públicos domiciliarios (Law 142 of 1994: By which theregime of home public services is established). 11 June, Bogotá, Colombia. https://www.funcionpublica.gov.co/eva/gestornormativo/norma.php?i=2752 (accessed 19April 2024)Dola K. and Mijan D. (2006). Public participation in planning for sustainabledevelopment: operational questions and issues. International Journal onSustainable Tropical Design Research & Practice, 1(1), 1–8, http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/2421/1/1-Kamariah.pdf (accessed 5 June 2024)Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). (2013). WaterSecurity and the Global Water Agenda: A UN-Water Analytical Brief. Institutefor Water, Environment & Health, United Nations University, Hamilton, Ontario,Canada. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12870/4206 (accessed 22 April 2024)EcoPeace Middle East. (2015). Regional NGO Master Plan for Sustainable Developmentin the Jordan Valley, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel. https://ecopeaceme.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Regional_NGO_Master_Plan_Final.pdf (accessed 22 April2024)Firdaus R. B. R., Leong Tan M., Rahmat S. R. and Senevi Gunaratne M. (2020). Paddy,rice and food security in Malaysia: a review of climate change impacts. CogentSocial Sciences, 6(1), 1818373, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2020.1818373Fraser N. (2008). Scales of Justice: Reimagining Political Space in A Globalizing World.Columbia University Press, New York, US. https://cup.columbia.edu/book/scalesof-justice/9780231146807 (accessed 22 April 2024)Fraser N. (2013). Fortunes of Feminism: From State-Managed Capitalism to NeoliberalCrisis. Verso Books, London and New York City, UK and US. https://www.versobooks.com/en-gb/products/2305-fortunes-of-feminism (accessed 5 June2024)Haie N. (2016). Sefficiency (sustainable efficiency) of water–energy–food entangledsystems. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 32(5), 721–737,https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2015.1070091Haie N. and Keller A. A. (2008). Effective efficiency as a tool for sustainable waterresources management. Journal of the American Water Resources Association(JAWRA), 44(4), 961–968, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2008.00194.xHaie N. and Keller A. A. (2012). Macro, meso, and micro-efficiencies in waterresources management: a new framework using water balance. Journal of theAmerican Water Resources Association (JAWRA), 48(2), 235–243, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2011.00611.xHaie N. and Keller A. A. (2014). Macro, meso, and micro-efficiencies and terminologiesin water resources management: a look at urban and agricultural differences. WaterInternational, 39(1), 35–48, https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2013.863588Heller L. (2020). Progress Towards the Realization of the Human Rights to Waterand Sanitation. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safedrinking water and sanitation, A/HRC/45/11, UN Human Rights Office of theHigh Commissioner, Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/ahrc4510-progressive-realization-human-rights-water-andsanitation (accessed 19 April 2024)Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2021). Summary for policymakers.In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of WorkingGroup I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger,N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 41B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu and B. Zhou (eds.),Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US, pp. 3–32,https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.001Iscaro J. (2014). The impact of climate change on coffee production in Colombia andEthiopia. Global Majority E-Journal, 5(1), 33–43.Jensen M. E. (2007). Beyond irrigation efficiency. Irrigation Science, 25(3), 233–245,https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-007-0060-5Jensen M. E., Harrison D. S., Korven H. C. and Robinson F. E. (1980). The role of irrigationin food and fiber production. In: Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems,G. J. Hoffman, R. G. Evans, M. E. Jensen, D. L. Martin and R. L. Elliot (eds.),American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Michigan, US, 15–41.Kobiruzzaman M. M. and Ahmad Ghazali A. H. (2022). Social media impact ontraditional media: a review on the reason behind the closure of Utusan Malaysia.International Journal of Education and Knowledge Management, 5(2), https://doi.org/10.37227/IJEKM-2022-01-1176Lautze J. and Kirshen P. (2009). Water allocation, climate change, and sustainable wateruse in Israel/Palestine: the Palestinian position. Water International, 34(2), 189–203, https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060902903175Lee T.-P. and Sun T.-W. M. (2018). Public participation. In: Global Encyclopaediaof Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, A. Farazmand (ed.),Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 5171–5181, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20928-9_2720Malaysian Government. (1976). Town and Country Planning Act 1976. Act 172, Lawsof Malaysia. https://tcclaw.com.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Town-andCountry-Planning-Act-1976.pdf (accessed 5 June 2024)Markic D. (2014). A review on the use of performance indicators in the public sector.TEM Journal, 3(1), 22–28, https://www.temjournal.com/documents/vol3no1/TemJournalFebruary2014_22_28.pdf (accessed 22 April 2024)Marzukhi M. A., Abdullah J., Leh O. L. H., Zanudin K. and Danial M. H. (2022). Thechallenges of public participation in the Malaysian planning system. PlanningMalaysia Journal, 20(4), 195–209, https://doi.org/10.21837/pm.v20i23.1161Meltzer J. and Rojas C. (eds.) (2005). Elusive Peace: International, National, and LocalDimensions of Conflict in Colombia. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, US, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-09105-5Olivera O. and Lewis T. (eds.) (2004). Cochabamba! Water War in Bolivia. SouthEnd Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, US. https://archive.org/details/cochabambawaterw00osca (accessed 5 June 2024)Ombudsman’s Office. (2013). La Gestión Comunitaria del Agua (Community WaterManagement). Imprenta Nacional de Colombia (National Printing House ofColombia), Bogotá, Colombia. https://www.habitatbogota.gov.co/sites/default/files/documents/2017-09/La%20gestio%CC%81n%20comunitaria%20del%20agua.pdf (accessed 19 April 2024)Oyediran K. K. and Wahab B. W. (2023). Building urban flood resilience throughcommunity participation in urban areas of kebbi state, Nigeria. In: Handbook ofResearch on Managing the Urban-Rural Divide Through an Inclusive Framework,A. A. Popoola, H. H. Magidimisha-Chipungu and L. Chipungu (eds.), IGI Global,Hershey, PA, pp. 146–166, https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-6258-4.ch009Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). (2012). Agricultural Census 2010Final Results – Jericho & Al Aghwar Governorate. Palestinian Central Bureau ofStatistics and Ministry of Agriculture, Ramallah, Palestine. https://www.pcbs.gov.ps/pcbs_2012/Publications.aspx?catid=41 (accessed 22 April 2024)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest42 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityPalestinian News & Info Agency (WAFA). (2015). Al’aghwar Alfilastinia (The Palestinianpart of the Jordan Valley). http://info.wafa.ps/ar_page.aspx?id=9663 (accessed 22April 2024)Palestinian Water Authority (PWA). (2012). Annual Status Report on Water Resources,Water Supply, and Wastewater in the Occupied State of Palestine 2011. Ramallah,Palestine.Palestinian Water Authority (PWA). (2013). Status Report of Water Resources in theOccupied State of Palestine – 2012. Ramallah, Palestine.Palestinian Water Authority (PWA). (2017). Groundwater Resources – Utilization 2015.Ramallah, Palestine. http://www.pwa.ps/page.aspx?id=NL8EMVa2547842781aNL8EMV (accessed 22 April 2024)Pereira L. S., Cordery I. and Iacovides I. (2012). Improved indicators of water useperformance and productivity for sustainable water conservation and saving.Agricultural Water Management, 108, 39–51, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2011.08.022Pérez-Rincón M. A. (2002). Comparing the management of water services inColombia’s small towns and villages. Waterlines, 21(1), 13–14, https://doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2002.039Ramirez-Villegas J., Salazar M., Jarvis A. and Navarro-Racines C. E. (2012). A wayforward on adaptation to climate change in Colombian agriculture: perspectivestowards 2050. Climatic Change, 115(3), 611–628, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-012-0500-ySachs J. D., Cordes K. Y., Rising J., Toledano P. and Maennling N. (2019). EnsuringEconomic Viability and Sustainability of Coffee Production. Columbia Center onSustainable Investment, New York, US.Suarez A., Árias-Arévalo P. A. and Martínez-Mera E. (2018). Environmental sustainabilityin post-conflict countries: insights for rural Colombia. Environment, Developmentand Sustainability, 20(3), 997–1015, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-017-9925-9Thielmann I., Böhm R., Ott M. and Hilbig B. E. (2021). Economic games: An introductionand guide for research. Collabra: Psychology, 7(1), 19004, https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.19004Tugan N., Haie N. and Ahmad M. T. (2020). Assessment of the agricultural water usein jericho governate using sefficiency. Sustanability, 12(9), 3634, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093634UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP). (2019). The United NationsWorld Water Development Report 2019: Leaving No One Behind. UNESCO, Paris,France. https://www.unesco.org/en/wwap/wwdr/2019 (accessed 22 April 2024)Willardson L. S., Allen R. G. and Frederiksen H. D. (1994). Elimination of IrrigationEfficiencies. Paper presented at the Irrigation Planning and Management Measuresin Harmony with the Environment session, 13th Technical Conference, 19–22October, United States Committee on Irrigation and Drainage (USCID), Denver,Colorado, US. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=6d6909ba2429e54d83e8e3f836352d1de1d13715 (accessed 22 April 2024)World Bank. (2012). Fiscal Crisis, Economic Prospects: The Imperative for EconomicCohesion in the Palestinian Territories. Economic Monitoring Report to the AdHoc Liaison Committee, Washington, DC, US. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/350371468141891355/fiscal-crisis-economic-prospects-the-imperative-for-economic-cohesion-inthe-palestinian-territories-economic-monitoring-report-to-the-ad-hoc-liaisoncommittee (accessed 22 April 2024)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – recognition and representation 43World Bank. (n.d.). Country: Colombia. Climate Change Knowledge Portal. https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/colombia/climate-dataprojections (accessed 22 April 2024)Yuan M. (2021). How the perception of public official on organizational culture influencesprocedural justice in environmental policy processes. Frontiers in Psychology, 12,626210, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.626210Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0045© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Pranav Singh, Shivani Singhal and Likimyelesh NigussieThe ways in which water (and other resources) are distributed directly impactsaccess to safe and sufficient water. Politics, pricing, and infrastructure all affectwater supply systems and distribution networks. In urban settings such as Delhi,India and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, systemic strains from the rapidly expandingpopulations and uneven development have made matters worse. The followingcase studies showcase the intersectional social injustices experienced in thesecities in relation to inadequate water distribution and displacement, and putforward proposals for more just solutions in which historically marginalisedpeoples are supported to become more resilient, innovative, and empowered.2.1 WATER INJUSTICE IN SLUMS: A CASE STUDY OF SETTLEMENTSALONG BARAPULLAH DRAIN, DELHI, INDIAPranav SinghDelhi is a city of stark contrasts, where gleaming neighbourhoods coexist withsprawling slums, creating a complex tapestry of urbanisation and inequality.At the heart of the city is the Barapullah Basin, which stretches alongside theBarapullah Drain, a 12-km stormwater drain that marks a region of geographic,socio-economic, and historical significance dating back to the 11th century(Sengupta, 2023). Numerous slum settlements are dotted along the periphery ofthis drain, grappling with profound challenges related to water access, sanitation,and land tenure security. These challenges epitomise the broader issue of waterjustice, whereby marginalised communities are disproportionately burdened byinequitable access to clean and reliable water sources, perpetuating cycles ofpoverty and vulnerability.Chapter 2Social justice – redistributionDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest46 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityContextual backgroundFor over 40 years, the 25 slums along the Barapullah Drain in Delhi haveserved as vital hubs of affordable housing for migrating families from lowincome backgrounds. Spread across an average area of 1.45 hectares, thesesettlements accommodate approximately 470 households each. However, theeconomic landscape within these communities presents challenges, with only27.5% of residents participating in the workforce and each household earningan average monthly income of 10 000–20 000 Indian rupees (Rs.), well belowDelhi’s average of Rs. 32 500. Sanitation facilities are inadequate, with only 26%of households having individual toilets, leading to reliance on dysfunctionalcommunity facilities. Water supply, averaging 40 litres per capita per day,primarily relies on public standposts, with limited treatment and concernsover potability. Consequently, over half of residents have stated that they arewilling to pay for improved water services (i.e. access to potable water in theirhomes). During monsoon seasons, flooding is frequent, displacing residents andcreating health hazards as wastewater enters houses.To focus on the positive, most communities (22 out of 25) have reportedsignificant improvements in their water supply over the years: they noted thatshortages were primarily experienced during peak summers and that qualityissues had diminished overall (Janya Collective, 2023b). The three slumsthat raised complaints about water scarcity are dispersed across the basin,indicating localised factors driving water scarcity rather than a uniform basinwide issue. This dispersion also underscores the need for nuanced, contextspecific solutions tailored to the unique challenges faced by each communityrather than broad, one-size-fits-all approaches.Disparities of water injusticeIn this case study, we delve into the three slum settlements along the BarapullahDrain that are facing severe water challenges, bringing out the systemic issuesfaced by residents. These slums are Nehru Ekta Camp and SPJP Camp in RKPuram, and New Priyanka Camp in Sarita Vihar. Specifically, we focus oninjustice in water services thanks to service disparities, access disparities,quality disparities, gender disparities, affordability, and policy injustice; at thesame time, we look at the various measures of resilience these communitieshave employed (Figure 2.1).Service delivery disparityNone of the three slums have piped water supply through the Delhi Jal Board(DJB), leading to a dire situation in water delivery. Water tankers serve as theprimary source for drinking purposes, with deliveries occurring every alternateday in Nehru Ekta Camp and SPJP Camp, and twice a day in New PriyankaCamp. Other sources available to the three communities are shared standpostsconnected to DJB-managed borewells, operating for two hours in the morningand two hours in the evening. However, the borewells’ reliance on groundwaterresults in poor water quality, characterised by elevated levels of suspendedsolids and E. coli contamination (Janya Collective, 2023a), rendering it suitableDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – redistribution 47only for non-consumptive uses, such as washing and bathing. Because thesestandposts are shared by many families, low pressure is experienced at the endof the network, adding to the time spent collecting water. All in all, a lackof reliable infrastructure underscores the poor service delivery that compelsresidents to resort to makeshift solutions to their water needs, relying on distantsources, sporadic supply from tankers, and individual water bottles (Figure 2.2).Figure 2.1 Aerial view of Delhi identifying the three slum locations in the Barapullah Basin.(Credit: Pranav Singh).Figure 2.2 Photographs showing (a) DJB water tanker in Nehru Ekta Camp and (b) commonstandpost. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest48 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityAccess disparitiesIn light of the poor service delivery, access to clean and reliable water remains ahuge challenge. Any standposts are shared by between seven and 20 families. Butpipelines and standposts are often broken, causing loss of water and pressure,and intermixing of wastewater. Periods of water scarcity force residents totravel to DJB-managed potable water sources outside settlements, which can befound anywhere from 250 to 600 metres away from various parts of the threeslums. Carrying loads of water is a daily endeavour that can consume hours oftime. Access disparity is further compounded by the irregular and unreliabledelivery of water tankers and substandard water quality (Figures 2.3–2.6).Figure 2.3 Photograph from Hanuman Camp of a community standpost adjacent toBarapullah Drain. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Figure 2.4 Map of Priyanka Camp showing distance to nearest DJB water source in timesof emergency. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – redistribution 49Quality disparitiesResidents of both Nehru Ekta Camp and SPJP Camp see elevated levels ofsuspended solids in their water supply, rendering it unsuitable for directconsumption. Despite this, community members resort to filtering thewater through cloth for non-consumptive purposes. Conversely, residents ofNew Priyanka Camp face a more pressing danger, with evidence of E. colicontamination in their water supply posing significant health risks.Gender disparitiesMore than 80% of the people in these communities who engage in the dailycarrying of water from tankers or public taps are women and children (JanyaCollective, 2023b). This disproportionate burden not only places additionalstrain on women and children but also results in significant loss of productivetime and labour, as they are compelled to dedicate considerable efforts to thetask of securing water supplies. Consequently, women are often barred frompursuing income-generating activities or accessing educational opportunities,while children frequently miss out on school due to their involvement in watercollection activities (CURE, 2022). This gendered division of labour not onlyperpetuates existing inequalities but also underscores the need for gendersensitive interventions (Figure 2.7–2.9).AffordabilityA few households in the camps have installed water storage tanks of 200–500 litres, so that they can collect rainwater and then employ reverse osmosisFigure 2.5 Map showing Nehru Ekta Camp and SPJP Camp and the distance to nearestDJB water source in times of emergency. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest50 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitytreatment methods (costing around Rs. 5000). Other families resort to buyingbottled water from local vendors at the cost of Rs. 30 per 20 litres, especiallyduring medical emergencies. But only about 10% of households across all threeslums can afford these measures, and so it remains an inadequate solution forthe broader community (Figure 2.10–2.12).Figure 2.6 Photographs from Nehru Ekta Camp and SPJP showing dirty water fromstandposts. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Figure 2.7 A common scene from a slum showing women engaged in household chores,including filling water vessels and washing clothes and utensils. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – redistribution 51Policy injusticeThe uneven, inadequate policy framework governing water delivery in slumsettlements perpetuates injustice. The DJB supplies water to slums primarilythrough standposts or else, where water pipe extension is not feasible, throughwater tankers, citing the lack of land tenure security. This stands in starkcontrast to the strategy adopted for other settlement types, where water isprovided through at-home taps. This disparity is furthered by the CentralPublic Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation, a body of theIndian government, which recommends the provision of 42 litres per capitaper day (LPCD) for slums, significantly lower than the norm of 172 LPCDfor the rest of Delhi (Aijaz, 2020). This discrepancy underscores the systemicinequities inherent in water governance, whereby marginalised communitiesare deprived of access to an adequate and stable water supply. Additionally,policies favouring the relocation of slum dwellers and the absence of affordablehousing options further exacerbate this injustice, as they fail to address theunderlying issues of tenure security.Figure 2.8 Women in SPJP Camp seen filling water through community taps with lowpressure. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Figure 2.9 Children in Nehru Ekta Camp carrying water from a tanker. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest52 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityConsequences of water injusticeThe water disparities outlined in this case study have severe consequenceson the residents of the camps. Economically, the lack of access to cleanand reliable water sources hinders productivity and income generationopportunities, perpetuating cycles of poverty and economic stagnation. Thereliance on makeshift solutions, such as water tankers and shared standposts,further exacerbates the financial stress on already marginalised communities,Figure 2.10 Photograph of New Priyanka Camp showing 500-litre water storage tanksinstalled at a few homes. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Figure 2.11 Photograph of Nehru Ekta Camp showing 500-litre water storage tanksinstalled at a few homes. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – redistribution 53as they are forced to allocate scarce resources to purchasing water or investingin alternative water treatment methods. This economic strain not only limitstheir ability to meet basic needs but also undermines their ability to advancesocio-economically in the long-term.Additionally, the poor quality of water sources poses significant health risksto residents, including waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera, andtyphoid. This not only results in physical suffering but also places additionalfinancial strain on households due to increased healthcare costs and loss ofincome from missed workdays. This logic also applies to women and children,who disproportionately carry the burden of water collection and thereforededicate significant time and effort to securing water for household use, oftenat the expense of educational and economic opportunities. The lack of accessto clean water notably jeopardises the health and cognitive development ofchildren (UNICEF, 2023). In extreme cases, water-related health hazards havealso led to premature loss of life.Despite all this, the residents have exhibited remarkable resilience as theyseek to overcome the barriers to water supply on a daily basis. These threecommunities, and the communities in the slums settled all along the BarapullahDrain in general, showcase the power of collective wisdom, expertise, action,and grassroots innovation when it comes to navigating the complexities of urbanlife. For instance, families in Nehru Ekta Camp have come together to installshared motor pumps equipped with flexible outlet pipes that allow each familya window of 15 minutes to fill their water tanks, promoting equitable resourcedistribution (Janya Collective, 2023b). Residents of SPJP Camp, meanwhile,have turned to their local temple, leveraging whatever water is available insidethe temple’s premises. The SPJP and New Priyanka Camp communities arealso exploring local water conservation approaches, repurposing many defunctpublic spaces for water harvesting and recycling mechanisms. Across theseFigure 2.12 Photographs from Nehru Ekta Camp and New Priyanka Camp showing use ofbottled water. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest54 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitysettlements, people can be seen employing makeshift filtration processes,such as using clothes to filter substandard water available through standposts.These adaptive approaches aid the communities in surviving the plight of waterscarcity, contamination, and inadequate infrastructure, and their stories serveas a testament to the strength of the human spirit in the face of adversity. Byamplifying the voices of marginalised communities and advocating for inclusivepolicies through such case studies, we strive to pave the way for transformativechange, realising a more just and equitable future where access to clean waterbecomes not only a basic necessity, but a fundamental human right (Figure 2.13).2.2 UNTOLD STORIES: FARMERS LIVING ALONG THE YAMUNA,DELHI, INDIAShivani SinghalWater is critical to the physical and social production of urban space (Gandy,2004). The boundaries between land and water are blurred and have beenrewritten by various actors over time (Coelho & Raman, 2013: 148). Suchcomplex and fluidly changing human–nature relations can be seen in thefloodplains of Delhi, India’s capital, where waterscapes feature river pollution,floods, and evictions.In July 2013, the water of the Yamuna River in Delhi rose to its highest levelin 45 years, inundating various projects on the floodplains and causing moreFigure 2.13 People reusing buckets and containers to store water, a common sight in theslums. (Credit: Pranav Singh).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – redistribution 55than 16 000 people to be shifted to relief tents (Mollan & Slow, 2023). Theintense flooding was seemingly sudden and unforeseen. But it must be said thatthe floodplains have been degraded as a result of human actions over the years:Kumar (2023) identified ‘rouge’ development as one of the leading causes ofsevere socio-ecological degradation. Indeed, ongoing river rejuvenation plansby the state and the judiciary are predicted to exacerbate such floods in thefuture. This urban construction in conjunction with ecological rationalities,then, reveals a set of anomalies and contradictions.The stretch of the Yamuna River that runs through Delhi is the mostpolluted river in the country (Yamuna Monitoring Committee, 2020). The riverrejuvenation plan in the city, a prototype that is to be copied in 351 urbanstretches of polluted rivers across India, claims to make the floodplains availablefor flooding (National Green Tribunal, 2019). Previously considered barren,the floodplains are redefined as vital blue-green spaces to achieve a ‘worldclass’ status, aligning with global economic interests. However, this pursuit ofhomogenised ‘world-class’ aesthetics marginalises informal workers and erasestheir narratives from the city’s development discourse (Follmann, 2014).This reimagining, however, involves state bodies ‘reclaiming’ land fromthousands of small-scale farmers in the area: the Delhi Development Authority(the city’s planning body), via the Master Plan Delhi 2041 (introduced in2021),1 and the National Green Tribunal (the national environmental court) areforcefully evicting all ‘rural’ farmers from the Delhi floodplains. To ‘modernise’the area, 10 parks with a ‘world-class’ environmental vision will then beconstructed: there are plans to plant expensive trees and grass, erect statues,and open cafes (Sharma, 2023). In other words, this modernisation seeks tocreate a ‘sanitised’ version of urban nature (Smith, 2008). In this, it adheres toprevious construction patterns, whereby high-profile engineering projects suchas bridges, dams, railway lines, luxury apartments, and mega temples have beenbuilt on the floodplains, paying little attention to the ‘natural ways’ of the river(Follmann, 2014; Ghertner, 2010; Gilmartin, 1995). As these plans take shape,there is a risk that the river will be channelised to an even greater extent inorder to protect these new investments. Moreover, these evictions completelyerase the rich socio-ecological history of the area, hollowing out the floodplainsso that they become a ‘non-space’ (Baviskar, 2020). Scapegoating of the urbanpoor has become part of the official discourse of rejuvenating urban ecologies(Baviskar, 2020; Coelho & Raman, 2013).These interconnected, multidimensional factors can be understood throughthe environmentalism of the dispossessed theory, deeply associated with therural Global South (Babu, 2016; Guha & Martínez-Alier, 1997; Kashwan, 2018;Kumar, 2016; Linkenbach, 2009; Rangan, 2004; Vasan, 2021). This theoryargues that conservation that doesn’t take into consideration the livelihoodand tenure security of local communities is meaningless (Bryant & Lawrence,2005) and ultimately results in ineffective long-term ecological outcomes. In1 The Master Plan for Delhi is a statutory plan that informs the spatial development ofthe city.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest56 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityother words, it is more common to meet conservation targets when the policiesat play empower local people, provide cultural benefits, and decrease livelihoodcosts (Oldekop et  al., 2015). Specifically, targeted community agricultureand conservation initiatives have been found to revitalise distressed areas(Krings & Schusler, 2020: 323). And as a general rule, it is possible to drivesociological and ecological evolution at the same time; indeed, co-managementthrough increased institutional collaboration and protection of tenure rightsin conservation zones typically delivers greater benefits (Oldekop et  al.,2015). However, most conservation policies fall back on formulaic strategies,prioritising these factors to a partial, unsatisfactory extent, or else not at all(Mawdsley, 2004). This produces contradictory results, causing human–naturerelationships to become strained (Hua et al., 2022).Presently, the top-down approach spearheaded by the elite, primarilythrough governmental and judicial channels, only acknowledges a narrowcomprehension of floods, rivers, and floodplains. And views of the small-scalefarmers and fishers are rarely heard. Ignoring such factors compartmentalisesthe technical framing of floods and separates the natural from the social.Untold stories: voices from the floodplainsThis video documents thepresence of these small-scalefarms, and the transformationof the floodplains throughgreenwashing techniques bythe elite. It contrasts the elite’senvironmental imaginary andcapture of urban nature againstthe farmer’s environmentalreality and the backdrop ofincreasing pollution in theYamuna.For this research, fieldwork was conducted from March 2021 to September2023. Secondary data, including policy documents, court cases, nongovernmental organisation (NGO) reports, and newspaper articles related tothe rejuvenated Yamuna initiative in Delhi, was analysed. Primary data included54 semi-structured interviews with a wide variety of actors such as small-scalefarmers, government officers, lawyers, environmentalists, civil society activists,cultural actors, and middle-class residents of Delhi. The results are largelypresented from the perspective of the farmers being dispossessed.The farmers have intersectional characteristics based on gender, class, caste,ethnicity, and region, which dictate their values, beliefs, and behaviours. Powerdynamics operate in subtle ways, as individuals hold multiple and overlappingsocial identities across various scales (Chung & Milkoreit, 2021; Singhal, 2024). Itis crucial to acknowledge that not all farmers face economic disadvantages: somehave major connections and own abundant land, property, and financial assets.By contrast, farmers who have more recently migrated to the area often findDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – redistribution 57themselves trapped in debt with few opportunities to improve their situation. Inthe video, two such comparative land-leasing farmers share their lived experiencesof river pollution, floods, and evictions. Both the farmers are older men and havebeen anonymised due to the ongoing court cases associated with this matter.22.3 SOCIAL JUSTICE IN WATER SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS FORURBAN AGRICULTURE INITIATIVES: THE CASE OF SHENKORA 2MULTI-PURPOSE GARDEN IN ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIALikimyelesh NigussieUrban agriculture plays a significant role in addressing issues such as foodinsecurity, environmental injustice, income inequality (Prudic et al., 2019), andis often conceptualised as a way to address these social justice concerns (Giraud,2021). However, achieving social justice goals through urban agriculture is notalways straightforward; challenges include governance issues and the needfor broader support networks involving government, practitioners, and nonprofit organisations (Hammelman, 2019). Urban agriculture also competesfor resources like land and water with other urban activities that are alsoinfluenced by policies and plans (Wadumestrige et al., 2021).Access to and distribution of high-quality water are essential for thesustainability and equity of food production in urban areas (Mok et al., 2014),yet the relationship between water security and urban agriculture is oftenoverlooked, leading to injustices. Studies show that urban agriculture contributessubstantially to water withdrawal in urban areas (Ramaswami et  al., 2022),which can have environmental implications, such as the depletion of local watersources or contamination from urban runoff (Hoekstra et al., 2018). In addition,the distribution of water resources in urban agriculture is often unequal, causingaccess difficulties for marginalised groups like smallholder farmers, womenfarmers, and indigenous communities (Hamilton et al., 2014). This inequitabledistribution perpetuates social and economic disparities, presenting significantchallenges for poor and marginalised populations. Factors such as competitionfor water, pricing mechanisms, rapid urbanisation, population growth, andinadequate water resource management contribute to water scarcity andinsecurity for marginalised populations (Prakash & Molden, 2020).In order to promote equitable access, community involvement, andsustainable practices, then, we must consider socio-ecological justice in watersecurity, to create resilient and just urban food systems (Fernández Andrés, 2017;Narayanaswamy et al., 2023; Radonic & Zuniga-Teran, 2023) (Figure 2.14).Ethiopia’s rapid urbanisation and rising food and living costs have led to therise of urban agriculture as a sustainable solution to the soaring living costs aswell as unemployment, particularly for low-income and vulnerable groups. A2 To capture good audio quality, a multimedia expert visited the site alongside AshishSharma, a male researcher. It was noted that female farmers and family members werenot comfortable with being recorded in this case.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest58 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitylocal government in Gulele sub-city, in collaboration with NGOs, has facilitatedurban agriculture for HIV/AIDS-impacted women and elderly grandparents,promoting healthier lifestyles and generating income opportunities.This case study is informed by a qualitative research methodology: wecollected data from farmers engaging in urban agriculture at Shenkora 2 inGulele, with focus group discussions in February 2020 and in-depth interviewsin February 2024. A total of 95 members, including 88 women and sevenmen, are part of the multi-purpose garden at Shenkora 2; the children andgrandchildren of these members also work there during their leisure time. Thisnot only creates learning opportunities, but also encourages the children tobecome members of the horticulture association when they get older and theirrelatives are no longer active. The Shenkora 2 women’s horticulture group isrun by a committee of women farmers who lead activities, mobilise participants,ensure equitable resource-sharing, manage finances, and represent members’voices in decision-making processes. The group receives support, includingresources and advisory services, from local government, NGOs, and civil societyorganisations. According to the women (and few men) farmers, practisingurban agriculture allows them to regularly access fresh produce, diversify theirdiets, and increase their income and participation in the workforce. They alsoindicated that the garden influences their emotional and social values, fosteringsolidarity, connection, and resilience.Still, our results show that the farmers face challenges in maximising thepotential of urban agriculture due to limited access to water, particularly duringdry seasons and droughts. They obtain water from various sources, includingtap water, rainwater, surface water (mainly from springs), and groundwater(from shallow wells). The Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture Policy andStrategy for Addis Ababa (Bureau of Trade and Industry Development, 2013)Figure 2.14 The Shenkora 2 Multi-Purpose Garden: (a) colleagues visiting the garden and(b) crops. (Credit: Cindy Lee Ik Sing).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocial justice – redistribution 59also supports access to water for these groups by promoting water harvesting,shallow groundwater tables, and subsidised rates for the pipeline water system –particularly for vegetable producers living with HIV-AIDS. However, accessingwater from these sources is challenging due to seasonal rainwater availability,chlorinated tap water, limited water storage tank capacity, higher payment ratesfor pipeline water systems, and declining water from springs and shallow wells.Access to water is particularly challenging for women who are elderly and/or have health issues, with their capacity for work therefore limited. Some ofthe plots are located at the top of the site, up a steep hill; collecting waterfrom springs located at the level of the terrain therefore requires these womento climb while carrying 10-litre cans, which is gruelling work. Strategies tosupport these women include giving them preferential access to tap water,allowing them to store water in small containers located on their plots, andhaving other volunteers fetch water for them from the spring. A civil societyorganisation has also developed a neighbouring spring to pump water froma pondage, store it in a water tank, and supply it to plots via piped systems.However, this is not exactly a sustainable solution, as the farmers claim thatmaintenance and energy costs associated with pumping water exceed theirrevenue from urban agriculture.In sum, Shenkora 2 site farmers face water use challenges due to seasonality,chlorination, and lack of policy. Elderly and physically weak women and men aredisproportionately affected, reinforcing socio-economic disparities. To ensurea sustainable, inclusive, equitable, and resilient water system, it is essentialto promote gender-responsive and socially inclusive water technologies andpractices. This includes providing affordable water-smart technologies that donot require much labour and cost.REFERENCESAijaz R. (2020). Water Supply in Delhi: Five Key Issues, ORF Occasional Paper No. 252,Observer Research Foundation. https://www.orfonline.org/research/water-supplyin-delhi-five-key-issues (accessed 23 April 2024)Babu S. (2016). Evolving texture of environmentalism and submergence of justice:a critical note on the Narmada Valley protest in India. Interface: A Journal onSocial Movements, 8(1), 142–156. https://www.interfacejournal.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Issue-8-1-Full-PDF.pdf (accessed 23 April 2024)Baviskar A. (2020). Uncivil City: Ecology, Equity and the Commons in Delhi. SageYODA Press, New Delhi, India.Bryant R. and Lawrence K. (2005). Penitent destroyer? The Philippine State in pursuitof environmental justice. In: The State and the Global Ecological Crisis, J. Barryand R. 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Varieties of Environmentalism: Essays Northand South. Earthscan, Oxfordshire, UK. https://www.routledge.com/Varietiesof-Environmentalism-Essays-North-and-South/Guha-MartinezAlier/p/book/9781853833298 (accessed 23 April 2024)Hamilton A. J., Burry K., Mok H-F., Barker S. F., Grove J. R. and Williamson V. G.(2014). Give peas a chance? Urban agriculture in developing countries. A review.Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 34, 45–73, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-013-0155-8Hammelman C. (2019). Challenges to supporting social justice through food systemgovernance: examples from two urban agriculture initiatives in Toronto. Environment& Urbanization, 31(2), 481–496, https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247819860114Hoekstra A. Y., Buurman J. and van Ginkel K. C. H. (2018). Urban water security: a review.Environmental Research Letters, 13(5), 053002, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaba52Hua H., Wang Y., Ding Z., Liu H., Zhou S. and Liu Y. (2022). 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Urban agriculture in developed countries: a review.Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 34, 21–43, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-013-0156-7Mollan C. and Slow O. (2023). ‘Delhi floods: Key roads under water as Yamuna Riverswells’. BBC News, 13 July. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-66184551(accessed 23 April 2024)Narayanaswamy L., Ferritto R., Hillesland M., Anker V., Singhal S., Maysels R. M.,Bantider A., Charles K., Doss C., Kumar A., Mdee A., Neo S-M., Pinzón F. andMengistu B. T. (2023). Why a feminist ethics of care and socio-ecological justicelens matter for global, interdisciplinary research on water security. Frontiers inHuman Dynamics, 5, 1212188, https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2023.1212188National Green Tribunal. (2019). Manoj Mishra vs Union of India & Ors., L.P.A. No.681/2019.Oldekop J. A., Holmes G., Harris W. E. and Evans K. L. (2015). 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Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6, 997081, https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.997081Rangan H. (2004). From Chipko to Uttaranchal: development, environment, and socialprotest in the Garhwal Himalayas, India. In: Liberation Ecologies: Environment,Development and Social Movements, R. Peet and M. Watts (eds.), Routledge,London, pp. 205–226, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203032923Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest62 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecuritySengupta A. (2023). ‘Mehrauli: the oldest ‘city’ of Delhi, inhabited for over a thousand years’.The Indian Express, 17 February. https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/mehrauli-oldest-city-of-delhi-explained-8450259/ (accessed 23 April 2024)Sharma V. (2023). ‘Delhi’s floodplain projects set back by years’. Times of India, 20July. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/floodplain-projects-set-backby-years/articleshow/101970674.cms (accessed 23 April 2024)Singhal S. (2024). Uncovering the Silences: Environmental Knowledges in the Floodplainsof Yamuna, Delhi, Decolonial Subversions. http://decolonialsubversions.org/docs/pdfs/2024/6.1_Singhal.pdf (accessed 23 April 2024)Smith N. (2008). Uneven Development: Nature, Capital, and the Production of Space,3rd edn. The University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia, US. https://ugapress.org/book/9780820330990/uneven-development/ (accessed 23 April 2024)UNICEF. (2023). Triple Threat: How Disease, Climate Risks, and Unsafe Water,Sanitation and Hygiene Create A Deadly Combination for Children. UnitedNations Children’s Fund, New York. https://www.unicef.org/reports/triple-threatwash-disease-climate (accessed 02 April 2024)Vasan S. (2021). We are all environmentalists! Framing life in the National GreenTribunal, India, Journal of Developing Societies, 37(2), 151–166, https://doi.org/10.1177/0169796X211001229Wadumestrige Dona C. G., Mohan G. and Fukushi K. (2021). Promoting urban agricultureand its opportunities and challenges: a global review. Sustainability, 13(17), 9609,https://doi.org/10.3390/su13179609Yamuna Monitoring Committee. (2020). Final Report of the Yamuna MonitoringCommittee. National Green Tribunal. https://greentribunal.gov.in/sites/default/files/news_updates/Final%20Report%20by%20Yamuna%20Monitoring%20Committee%20in%20OA%20No.%2006%20of%202012.pdf (accessed 23 April2024)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0063© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Joshua B. Cohen and Ashwini MoreTaking inspiration from indigenous philosophies, as well as more recentacademic research such as the work of Aldo Leopold and Rachel Carson,proponents of ecological justice hold that more-than-human nature has intrinsicvalue and moral standing in its own right (Washington et al., 2018; Wienhues,2020). This chimes with recent attempts to recognise the agency of more-thanhuman beings – not just as instantiations of a general kind, but potentially asdifferent types of entity with lives and stories of their own (Ingold, 2021; Ogdenet al., 2013; Pacini-Ketchabaw et al., 2016).In the following case studies, Joshua uses the bio-centric perspective ofecological justice to explore what justice for peatlands might actually meanin the shifting human context of climate change adaptation. Acknowledgingthat there is no real distinction between nature and culture, given how deeplyentangled nature – in particular peatlands – is with human history, politics, andeconomy, Joshua exposes the intersections of large-scale landscape interventionsand issues of human inequality, power, and coercion, while questioning whetherecological justice can be truly separated from anthropocentrism. This questionis further explored by Ashwini, who considers heritage water systems in Indiaand how their function has changed over time: initially designed to be alignedwith nature’s patterns for mutual benefit (humans and more-than-humans),they have been overpowered by anthropic activities and power shifts over time.3.1 ECOLOGICAL JUSTICE IN THE REALM OF PEATLAND RESTORATIONAND CARBON STORAGE IN THE UKJoshua B. Cohen‘peat, spongy material formed by the partial decomposition of organicmatter, primarily plant material, in wetlands such as swamps, muskegs,Chapter 3Ecological justiceDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest64 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitybogs, fens, and moors … The wetlands in which peat forms are known aspeatlands.’Kopp (2022)The UK is now enthusiastically treating one of the ecosystems it formerlymaligned and abused – peatlands – as a part of the solution to its, and theplanet’s, ecological woes. Such woes include, but are not limited to, flooding,biodiversity loss, water quality, and climate change; the latter is particularlysignificant because of peat’s impressive capacity to store carbon.As a starting point when thinking about what ecological justice for peatlandsin the UK could mean, I draw on the key principles outlined in the UniversalDeclaration for the Rights of Wetlands, as proposed by Gillian Davies, amongothers (Davies et al., 2021). It declares:‘… that all wetlands are entities entitled to inherent and enduring rights,which derive from their existence as members of the Earth community …These inherent rights include the following:(1) The right to exist(2) The right to their ecologically determined location in the landscape(3) The right to natural, connected and sustainable hydrological regimes(4) The right to ecologically sustainable climatic conditions(5) The right to have naturally occurring biodiversity, free of introduced orinvasive species that disrupt their ecological integrity(6) The right to the integrity of structure, function, evolutionary processesand the ability to fulfil natural ecological roles in the Earth’s processes(7) The right to be free from pollution and degradation(8) The right to regeneration and restoration’(rightsofwetlands.org, n.d.)Peatlands’ ecological and social destructionMeasured against these principles, peatlands in the UK have suffered manyinjustices, especially during the latter period of colonial modernity. Peoplehave been digging trenches to drain water from their lands since before theRomans arrived in Britain. However, it was in the 17th century, as Britainboth violently created and tapped into a global, perpetually expanding market,that drainage grew on an unprecedented scale (Holden et al., 2004; Rippon,2006). From this point onwards until the mid-20th century, drainage effortsfocused mainly on lowland wetlands (Holden et al., 2004; Proulx, 2022). So,the destruction of wetlands as a process is inextricably linked to the origins ofcapitalism, driven by the institutions, sciences, policies, and laws that primarilyadvanced the interests of Britain’s ruling classes. As is well documented(Holden et al., 2004; Merchant, 1989; Proulx, 2022; Wilson et al., 2010; Younget al., 2017), wetlands had to be ‘improved’ and made ‘productive’ in responseto the needs of textile and other agro-industrial processes. They were redefinedby knowledgeable men of letters as ‘pestilential’, ‘stinking’ ‘wastes’, and thosethat lived from their bounty were categorised as degraded forms of humanity,Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestEcological justice 65in need of saving and civilising through the virtues of hard work (Merchant,1989; Proulx, 2022).Such debasement of the ecosystem continues to this day in commonperceptions of peatlands and in everyday language. In England, a ‘bog’ is alsoa toilet, and no one wants to get stuck in a ‘quagmire’.1 And the treatment ofpeatlands is dominated by a centuries-long approach to flooding in Britain inwhich the accepted, common-sense ‘solution’ has been to encourage water toleave landscapes as fast as possible, resulting in straightened, concrete-hardened,culverted, and life-discouraging waterways up and down the country (Purseglove,2015). All of this – from intensified agro-industry, to drained wetlands, tosimplified and impoverished river systems – was then exported directly orindirectly to Britain’s colonies in the creation of what Rohan D’Souza has termeda ‘colonial hydrology’ (D’Souza, 2006; Tvedt, 2011). The human injustices linkedto this are almost beyond comprehension, including the devastating Pakistanfloods of 2022 which affected 33 million people (Mohmand et al., 2023).Returning to England, many who made their livelihoods from formerly vastfenlands lost access to these vital lowland landscapes when they were enclosedand drained by the landed gentry from the 17th century onwards (Proulx 2022).After World War II and auxiliary efforts to ‘feed Britain’, government incentivesthen led to a massive acceleration in the drainage of upland (i.e. higherelevation) peatlands to grow crops and create pasture for livestock – therebyerasing a long-established and more sustainable balance in upland ecosystems(Holden et al., 2004; Schofield, 2022). As Holden et al. observe, ‘Britain is oneof the most extensively drained lands in Europe … and drainage of peatlandshas played a fundamental role in the history of British farming’ (Holden et al.,2004:05). It is worth noting that this is emphatically not a critique of livestockfarmers or landowners, many of whom still struggle today within an uncertain,shifting policy landscape and economic context (Ogawa et al., 2023). Rather, itis to point out that, alongside many rural people and farmers, peat has been –and continues to be – buffeted by political decisions made hundreds of milesfrom where the impacts of such decisions are felt.These processes were also key, especially in the 17th to early 20th centuries,in creating a class of people with no land, forcing millions to sell their labourin exploitative factory conditions in expanding industrial cities (Foster et al.,2021; Thompson, 1968). Taking a more bio-centric perspective, we might argue,in line with Moore (2015) and Collis (2016), that the peatlands, alongside therivers into which they drain, and the more-than-human world more generally,have become part of a global ‘biotariat’: their life processes give ‘free’ surplusvalue – in the form of well-fertilised soil and clean water, for example – tocapitalist processes, in a similar way to the unpaid portion of human labour.The result is that, today, only around 20% of the peatlands in the UK, andjust 13% of those in England, are in a near-natural state (Bain et al. 2011; UKGovernment, 2021) (Figure 3.1).1 A quagmire is an area of wet, boggy ground that a person might sink into; in extendeduse, it also refers to an unpleasant or difficult situation.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest66 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityAs argued by myself and colleagues elsewhere (Cohen et al., 2023), all ofthis is part of a broader, longer process by which any premodern, animistrelationship to waters as living ancestral beings was fundamentally undone bywhat Aimé Césaire calls ‘thingification’ through colonisation (Césaire, 2001).That is, we have moved towards a fantasy ‘world made of things connectedonly by their presence in space, from which they were extractable to whateverextent was humanly possible, [and in which] Life and ecological relations wereincidental and optional extras’ (Green, 2020: 40). We might well note here thatthingification is metaphysically parallel and foundational to the creation of thecommodity form central to our current global political economy – everythingand anything can in principle be exchanged for anything else through themagical medium of money.Sights and sounds of Ilkley MoorSuch thoughts lie behind my multimedia intervention (Figure 3.2). Here, Iam inspired by various artists, including Kathy Hinde, Lara Weaver, MaggieRoe, and Cosmo Sheldrake, who creatively use hydrophones to tap intohidden soundscapes as a way to shift our perception of the environment andour relation to it. In so doing, they draw us into the worlds beneath our feet(Hinde, n.d.; Sheldrake, 2020), reframe attitudes to the boggy, squelchy aspectsof ecosystems (Weaver, 2022), and situate us bodily and sensually in Earth’sdynamic fluxes (Hinde, 2021).My multimedia image and sound piece resonates with this trend. Thissonorous postcard, featuring submerged peat pool hydrophone and open-airFigure 3.1 Ilkley Moor, Yorkshire, North-West England. (Credit: Joshua B. Cohen).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestEcological justice 67microphone recordings, aims to draw attention in a meditative mode to thelayers of ongoing, emplaced, specific more-than-human and human lives thathave and make peatlands. There is nothing else, no out, nowhere outside of ourentangledness in this thin critical sliver of Earth and atmosphere that is andgives life (Latour & Weibel, 2020).In this case, the sliver is the popular visitors’ site of Ilkley Moor, Yorkshire,in the north-west of England. Ilkley is an iconic blanket peatland, a landscape‘saturated with meaning’ (Flint & Jennings, 2020) where standing stones androck carvings attest to millennia of human presence – which some scholarshave in turn connected to premodern animist modes of communicating andnegotiating with a sentient landscape (Hutton, 2013; Wallis, 2009, 2013).Enclosed in the 16th century and subsequently subject to drainage and burningin the interests of grouse hunters and walkers, who valued the heathery butpotentially less peat-friendly landscapes thus produced, Ilkley Moor has beenin public hands since the 19th century (Smith & Atherden, 1985). Contestationsover hunting on and access to the moor continued well into the 20th century(Blenkinsop, 1958), with Bradford City Council eventually banning hunting in2018 (McIntyre, 2019). Today, through organisations such as the EnvironmentAgency and the Friends of Ilkley Moor, various kinds of restoration activities areunderway across the moor, including blocking of drainage channels, planting ofsphagnum moss, and building of ‘leaky dams’ (McIntyre, 2019).I hope the reader will be able to take a moment in this overland-underlandwatery soundscape, so as to have it playing in their mind as they read the restof this case study.Peatlands’ ecological restorationIf we think of the scale of destruction and the overall poor condition of theUK’s peatlands, as well as of the waters that are inextricably part of them,Figure 3.2 The peatlands of Illkey Moor: a sonorous postcard. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest68 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitywe are clearly a long way from ecological justice. Nevertheless, the pastcouple of decades have seen a notable and sustained shift towards a differentunderstanding of the UK’s hydrological processes, in which the value of workingwith nature has been recognised. A change of collective heart in regard to theUK’s peatlands has brought concerted efforts to restore lowland and uplandpeatlands, backed up by various policies,2 significant political will, and EU andUK government and private finance.Up and down the country, on and in uplands and lowlands, in the sky,in outer space, in universities, online, and on TV, a range of actors – fromresearchers to conservationists, non-governmental organisations, farmers,artists, politicians, government ministries, digger drivers, satellite and droneoperators, and masses of volunteers – are passionately advocating for andphysically working to assess, map and ‘re-wet’ the UK’s peatlands. All of thisis aimed at restoring a significant portion of them to their precolonial status(Bradley et  al., 2022; Harris & Baird, 2019; Waylen et  al., 2016). Certainly,some progress has been made, and we are likely to see some more, as we movetowards a peatland model that reflects, at least to some extent, the wetlandrights proposed by Gillian Davies.Justice for peatlands?With restorative efforts like these occurring in many parts of the UK, we beginto question: can we see the outlines of some kind of ecological justice forpeatlands emerging? I think we need to be extremely careful here – for at leasttwo significant reasons:(1) The motivations behind this increased political interest in peatlandsare not entirely pure. A key, consistent message underscoring theexcitement around and interest in peatland restoration is peatlands’ability to store carbon on a vast scale. They are ‘our largest terrestrialcarbon store’, according to the England Peat Action Plan (UKGovernment, 2021: 022). Healthy peatlands’ ability to store carbon forthousands of years (as opposed to only hundreds with trees), alongsidetheir propensity to emit carbon when degraded, make them a clearpriority for the UK government, which is attempting to meet ambitious2050 net-zero carbon targets (UK Government, 2021). While policydocuments also point to peatlands’ various other ‘ecosystem services’,alongside the government’s plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,the pressing climate change challenges make peatlands’ carbon-storingability the clear focal point – and thereby often equate peat to its carboncontent.(2) The plans to fund the scaled-up restoration needed to meet therequirements of the first point are somewhat hazy. Another key,consistent message across policy documents is that the governmentintends to finance restoration through carbon credits and ‘natural2 Key policies include the UK Peatland Strategy and the England Peat Action Plan.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestEcological justice 69capital markets’. A core aim here is to integrate peatlands within the UKEmission Trading Scheme (ETS), so that the government and nationaland international businesses can offset the carbon they emit elsewhereby buying the carbon stored or else (hopefully) to be stored, in (restored)peatlands. This is problematic for a number of reasons. Not only dorecent studies question whether such schemes actually reduce emissionsand environmental degradation (Greenfield, 2023), but this rests onthe assumption that one part of the Earth can be traded for another,as if ‘life and ecological relations were incidental and optional extras’(Green, 2020).ConclusionClearly, significant resources are going to be needed if peatlands are to berestored to their full potential: perhaps finances raised by the ETS and otherschemes might help the UK’s peatlands see some kind of justice. But it isconcerning that these landscapes are potentially being instrumentalised andagain turned to the needs of global capital. This is an issue of resilience –but it is arguably as much about making capitalism resilient to its owncontradictions as anything else. Will companies and governments be ableto continue business (more or less) as usual, polluting elsewhere whilereinventing peatland places as their natural banks, as a biotariat whosesurplus value as a carbon sink can literally pay their debts for them? Doesit matter if UK peatlands are used this way if more and more of them enjoythe kinds of rights set out above? From a whole Earth perspective, therisk remains that, if emissions are not significantly reduced, right numberfour in the Universal Declaration for the Rights of Wetlands, ‘the right toecologically sustainable climatic conditions’, upon which all other rightseffectively hinge, will be totally undercut.Thinking more locally, there are many questions yet to be raised oradequately answered about who benefits most from peatlands – especially inthe context of them being primarily valued by decision-makers for the carbonthey store and for the monetary value associated with this. Will the governmentand businesses find it more ‘efficient’ to deal with large landowners in order tomeet their net carbon aims? What about the implications for sheep and cattle,tangible beings that have been deeply culturally embedded in the ecosystemover centuries, potentially being replaced by abstract carbon credits as adominant form of social value? These questions, among many others, are whyI, alongside colleagues at the University of Leeds, am developing an approachto studying – in a much more comprehensive and rigorous way than thebrief thoughts presented here – the risks involved in remaking peatland ascarbon credit, as natural capital, as a de-relationed ‘thing’ once more. Sincepeatlands’ ecological relations have always included people, the foregoingargument suggests that, while the concept of ecological justice can be usefulin helping to reorient us away from human exceptionalism and centrism, it bynecessity must include human beings within its considerations if it is to meananything at all.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest70 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security3.2 WATER HERITAGE FROM INDIA’S PASTAshwini MoreHabitation and the management of water resources have long been symbiotic,intertwined facets of human civilisation, as documented by scholars suchas Aldaya et  al. (2019) and Anderson et  al. (2019). How societies perceiveand value water informs how it is managed, underscoring the importanceof recognising water as a fundamental human right (UN Resolution 64/292[2010]). And beyond its utilitarian function, water has served as a space forleisure and community engagement. Exploring how people interact with waterin recreational settings unveils its role as a nexus for social cohesion andcommunal bonding. Understanding the historical context of water managementand its links to justice is crucial in fostering equitable access to water resourcesand cultivating vibrant, inclusive communities.This study delves into historical water management principles observed inIndia, offering insights into the water values that have shaped past civilisations.By analysing a wide array of secondary literature, including archives, masterplans, research papers, and news articles, this study aims to unravel the intricatetapestry of water management practices that has defined India’s heritage.Various case studies are used to illustrate different aspects of a shared idea. Weexplore a wide variety of stories because obtaining a thorough historical accountfor each case study proves challenging, due to the absence of comprehensivehistorical records. While we cannot presume uniform management of all waterheritage, the aim is to present history through a speculative lens, drawing uponanalogous historical instances to visualise likely scenarios.Water heritage infrastructures can playa notable role in curbing water insecurity(More et  al., 2022). As this video shows,humans have interacted with naturalresources for centuries, and have innovatedingenious solutions to meet their needs.If we look at the historic managementof water, it is apparent that water valuesand governance played and continue to play an intrinsic part in addressingwater management systems. These, in turn, play a significant role in shapingcivilisations and cultures (Crouch, 1993). It is unsurprising, then, thatdifferent regions have responded differently to the water-related challengesthey face, whether stemming from scarcity or abundance. This diversity ofresponses has manifested in various infrastructure models that have evolvedover the years, in the form of qanats (underground channels) in Iran or baolis(stepwells) in northern India, among many others. These types of structuresvaried in their functions but often provided multiple services: for instance,baolis provided drinking water, water for cleaning and bathing, and a space forthe community to gather and rest from the summer heat, all while rechargingthe groundwater. The success of the infrastructure relied heavily on how itwas managed.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestEcological justice 71Traditionally, local people relied on themselves to manage water forthousands of years (Agarwal & Narain, 1997). But given the escalating impactsof climate change, such as extreme weather events, there is a pressing needto explore alternative strategies for addressing these challenges effectively.By re-evaluating and adapting proven strategies from history, we can developinnovative approaches tailored to the unique challenges of the present climatecrisis. In this case study, we explore historic water management and watervalues in India and consider how to apply these to cases in the present.Looking to the pastHistorical records in India indicate that societies considered building watermanagement systems one of the highest acts of service (Wescoat et al., 2021).In light of this, the powerful and wealthy were motivated to develop, build,and maintain water infrastructure for the common good of the citizens. Forexample, as per the Kakatiya ideology, associated with the Kakatiya dynasty(12th–14th century) of the eastern Deccan region of India, constructing andde-silting tanks were listed among the seven most virtuous deeds a ruler onEarth could undertake (Green et  al., 2020). This made water security andmanagement appealing to the rulers, regardless of their personal biases orpreferences, thus ensuring an adequate water supply for a flourishing kingdom’sgrowing population – and underscoring the vital role water plays in our lives.As such, a leader would often construct a new tank when they came to power(Green et al., 2020): this construction would certainly be motivated by politicalgains, but the tank also benefitted the citizens by providing clean and safedrinking water and safeguarding water and food security. It can, therefore, beargued that these acts of benevolence are intertwined with the principle of theright to clean and safe drinking water.To illustrate this further, let us examine qanats or karez, undergroundchannels made by tapping into water from foothills with rainwater harvestingrecharge points, used (in some cases) for drinking and irrigation purposes.These channels were carefully designed and crafted to ensure the proper flowof water, and they were particularly beneficial in arid and semi-arid regions, asthey protected water resources from evaporation. Qanats, originally designedin Iran, are found worldwide; in parts of India, such as Bidar, Karnataka, theyare called karez. The karez of Bidar, dating from the 15th–16th centuries, tell usa story of anticipatory and active planning from the past and one of communitystewardship in the present.To take the first point, when a new settlement was planned where the heritagecity of Bidar now stands, the water network, called the Naubad Karez, was builtfirst, before the rest of the settlement. This clearly demonstrates how importantthe city administration considered water services to be. During the planningprocess, the authorities also took into consideration the need to ensure the citywould have enough potable water, even in the event of a siege (Govindankutty,2016). Resilience and adaptability were embedded into the planning.This generally chimes with historical water management practices. Whilethe governance of these heritage water systems always varied, there is onesimilarity that we can draw upon. For instance, in the Arthashastra, a treatiseDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest72 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitywritten by Kautilya in the 2nd–3rd century BCE, the text not only mentions thata king should construct water reservoirs, but adds that the king could, in othercases, assist others in constructing water bodies by providing land, routes,trees, and implements. Similarly, according to records from the 18th-centuryMaratha administration, none of the local taxes were allocated specifically forrural drinking water infrastructure development. Instead, this relied on a mixof local funding, charitable donations, mandatory labour contributions, andloans – the latter were frequently sought after (Wescoat et al., 2021). Moreover,in Kikruma, in the north-eastern region of India, the practice of water–forest–farm management known as zabo has been passed down through generationsand lives on to this day. Farmers collectively assess and maintain harvestingtanks, channels, and water distribution arrangements (Amenla & Shuya,2021). These examples highlight the diversity of governance approaches whileemphasising the corollary of community involvement and ownership.Looking to the presentUnfortunately, communities have now become largely disconnected from theseresources, and water-sensitive behaviours and values have been lost, specificallyin urban areas. Multiple factors have led to the disuse of this infrastructure,including haphazard planning, overuse of groundwater, pollution, and more.However, we would like to highlight one factor in particular: the shift fromdecentralised, local water management approaches to centralised, commandand-control approaches. This started during the colonial era, as the powerto rule local lands shifted to a ruler disconnected from the lands and theirchallenges. As power shifted, responsibilities changed too, moving from thecommunity to the state. This began with governance of water resources andwas eventually reflected in the water resources themselves. For instance, waterfrom various lakes used by locals in Bengaluru was diverted into a newer,deeper reservoir. This transfer of water eventually alienated the communitiesthat were dependent on and responsible for the older system’s upkeep. And intime, their reduced dependency on the sites of the system also left them open toencroachment, land use changes, pollution, and so forth (Sudhira et al., 2007).Thus, the land that was once so crucial to water management is now morevalued for urban housing than water.A similar process happened with baolis, stepwells that provided multipleutilities (Figure 3.3). As mentioned above, these stepwells were used to drawgroundwater for drinking while also providing a space to bathe and relax anda tank to recharge the groundwater. This fostered a close connection betweencommunities, their drinking water, and their leisure: these spaces served asfocal points for community interactions, strengthening cultural and socialbonds. Additionally, the baolis also encouraged citizens and users to valueand respect water by virtue of the fact that they were a tangible and visiblepart of their landscape: they cultivated a sense of environmental stewardshipand appreciation for natural resources. By nurturing these connections andpreserving communal water spaces like baolis, then, we might ensure ourcommunities’ continued vitality and resilience. The experience of water,Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestEcological justice 73particularly groundwater, is now lost in many modern urbanscapes (Marathe,2021). A particularly striking example of this disconnection presents itself in thecase of the sub-city of Dwarka in Delhi, which was constructed and inhabitedfor over 15 years before receiving a piped water supply (Kumar et al., 2021).If we return to present-day Bidar, we find efforts to recapture a sense ofconnection: in the 2010s, a collaborative effort involving academics, localgovernment, and grassroots organisations led to the restoration of thekarez system. Initially mistaken for escape routes by locals, the karez wererediscovered and identified by the academic Govindankutty. In spring 2015,Figure 3.3 Agrasen Baoli with water to the third level, 1971, (top, credit: Raghu Rai); andwith water to the first level, 2023, (bottom left and right, credit: Ashwini More). Click onthe image to view it as an online slider.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest74 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitythe local government responded to his research findings by initiating cleaningand conservation efforts; by September, water briefly flowed again, provingthe karez could be operationalised. There then followed a dry spell duringwhich restoration work continued but, in the summer of 2016, all the city’skarez systems ran dry for the first time. A volunteer-led non-governmentalorganisation, YUVAA, then took it upon itself to raise awareness amonglocals about the karez system and how it works. YUVAA also urged the localauthorities to undertake desilting and cleaning of wells, advocating for legalmeasures to safeguard against encroachments on the watershed and protestingthe unchecked expansion of deep tube well drilling, as these wells had disruptedthe delicate gradients essential for the functioning of the karez system.By September 2016, thanks to restoration efforts and heavy rains, thesystem was filled with water and has not run dry since, seeing the city ofBidar through drought in the consecutive year. It is remarkable to witnesshow diverse parties have collaborated effectively on this scheme and how, inparticular, the government has welcomed initiative and public involvement.Such collaborations are crucial not only for preserving water heritage but alsofor enhancing water security overall. This makes it all the more disappointingthat, despite the widely documented use of the karez systems of Bidar, the stateplans to build highways cutting across the town that will endanger the system(Sridhar, 2017). It is baffling to see how today’s planning authorities disregardthe examples of the past, failing to acknowledge heritage water bodies in citymaster plans (e.g. in Nagpur and Bengaluru) and leaving them exposed toencroachments and developers (Anparthi, 2016). For example, in the city ofNagpur, two lakes (Police Line Takli and Sanjay Gandhi Lake) were excludedfrom the City Development Plan 2015 (Nagpur Municipal Corporation, 2015).Looking to the futureDrawing on the examples given in earlier sections, we can see that the tangibleuses of water dramatically affect how communities view and value water. We canalso deduce that when administrators have a close link to and understandingof water, they are more likely to have an effective long-term vision for themanagement of the resource. It is essential to acknowledge and learn from ourpast, trying to bring or else adapt it in ways that work for our lives now.Beyond this, it vital that we have a real relationship with water, rather thanseeing it as a resource contained in pipes and tankers, hidden from our dailylives. As demonstrated by More et al. (2022), hidden linkages such as naturalslopes and groundwater recharges allow us to understand urban water cyclesholistically. Heritage water systems like baolis and karez facilitate a deeperunderstanding of these linkages by illustrating how human activities andclimatic patterns influence water dynamics and ultimately affect communities.The example of Bidar shows that we need to shift away from centralised modelsof governance to mixed models of governance, not just for our water heritagebut for all water. Given that water is a human right and a necessity for all livingbeings, we recommend co-designing experiences and spaces with water that areaccessible to everyone.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestEcological justice 75Overall, water heritage presents a learning opportunity, illustrating as it doesthe tangible and multiple ways of looking at water, which ultimately promotescommunity stewardship. This helps people to shift or relink the values theyhold today, taking a crucial step towards water security.See Figure 3.3 to compare the Agrasen baoli in the past and the present, orview it as an image slider online.REFERENCESAgarwal A. and Narain S. (eds.) (1997). Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India’sTraditional Water Harvesting Systems. State of India’s Environment, Volume 4,Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, India. https://csestore.cse.org.in/usd/soe4.html (accessed 5 June 2024)Aldaya M. M., Custodio E., Llamas R., Fernández M. F., García J. and Ródenas MÁ(2019). An academic analysis with recommendations for water managementand planning at the basin scale: A review of water planning in the Segura RiverBasin. Science of The Total Environment, 662, 755–768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.266Amenla I. and Shuya K. (2021). Zabo (Zabü) farming of Kikruma Village, Nagaland,India. In: Innovations in Agricultural Extension, P. S. Adams (ed.), NationalInstitute of Agricultural Extension Management and Michigan State UniversityExtension, Michigan, US. https://www.canr.msu.edu/extensioninternational/Innovations-in-Agricultural-Extension/files/Ch03-Amenla_Zabo-Farming_2021-01-13aa.pdf (accessed 25 April 2024).Anderson E. P., Jackson S., Tharme R. E., Douglas M., Flotemersch J. E., Zwarteveen M.,Lokgariwar C., Montoya M., Wali A., Tipa G. T., Jardine T. D., Olden J. D., ChengL., Conallin J., Cosens B., Dickens C., Garrick D., Groenfeldt D., Kabogo J., RouxD. J., Ruhi A. and Arthington A. H. (2019). Understanding rivers and their socialrelations: A critical step to advance environmental water management. WIREsWater, 6(6), e1381. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1381Anparthi A. (2016). 100-yr-old lake fell off city map, finally “found”. The Times of India,10 October. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/100-yr-old-lake-felloff-city-map-finally-found/articleshow/54769950.cms (accessed 25 April 2024)Bain C. 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Marine & Freshwater Research, 72(5), 593–600. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF20219D’Souza R. (2006). Water in British India: The making of a ‘colonial hydrology’. HistoryCompass, 4(4), 621–628. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00336.xFlint A. and Jennings B. (2020). Saturated with meaning: peatlands, heritage and folklore.Time and Mind, 13(3), 283–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/1751696X.2020.1815293Foster J. B., Clark B. and Holleman H. (2021). Marx and the commons. Social Research:An International Quarterly, 88(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1353/sor.2021.0003Govindankutty V. (2016). Historic cultural landscape conservation: rejuvenatingSurang-Bhawi system of Bidar. Urban Update, 1, 28. https://archive.org/details/historical-cultural-landscape-conservation-rejuvenating-surang-bhawi-system-ofbidar (accessed 5 June 2024)Green L. (2020). Rock/Water/ ̳ Life: Ecology and Humanities for a Decolonial South ̳Africa. Duke University Press, Durham, North Carolina, US. https://www.dukeupress.edu/rock-water-life (accessed 25 April 2024).Green A. S., Dixit S., Garg K. K., Sandya N. R., Singh G., Vatta K., Whitbread A. M.,Jones M. K., Singh R. N. and Petrie C. A. (2020). An interdisciplinary frameworkfor using archaeology, history and collective action to enhance India’s agriculturalresilience and sustainability. Environmental Research Letters, 15(10), 105021.https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aba780Greenfield P. (2023). Revealed: More than 90% of rainforest carbon offsets by biggestcertifier are worthless, analysis shows. The Guardian, 18 January. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/18/revealed-forest-carbon-offsetsbiggest-provider-worthless-verra-aoe (accessed 25 April 2024)Harris A. and Baird A. J. (2019). Microtopographic drivers of vegetation patterning inblanket peatlands recovering from erosion. Ecosystems, 22(5), 1035–1054. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-018-0321-6Hinde K. (2021). Never Step into the Same River Twice. South West Creative TechnologyNetwork. https://www.swctn.org.uk/2021/03/09/never-step-into-the-same-rivertwice/ (accessed 25 April 2024)Hinde K. (n.d.). Deep Listening Soundscapes. Sonica. https://sonic-a.co.uk/portfolio/deep-listening-soundscapes/ (accessed 25 April 2024).Holden J., Chapman P. J. and Labadz J. C. (2004). Artificial drainage of peatlands:hydrological and hydrochemical process and wetland restoration. Progress inPhysical Geography: Earth and Environment, 28(1), 95–123. https://doi.org/10.1191/0309133304pp403raHutton R. (2013). Pagan Britain. Yale University Press, London, UK. https://yalebooks.co.uk/book/9780300268348/pagan-britain/ (accessed 25 April 2024).Ingold T. (2021). The Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood, Dwellingand Skill. Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK. https://www.routledge.com/The-Perception-of-the-Environment-Essays-on-Livelihood-Dwelling-and-Skill/Ingold/p/book/9781032052274 (accessed 25 April 2024).Kopp O. (2022). Peat. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/technology/peat (accessed 25 April 2024)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestEcological justice 77Kumar A., Singh N., Cooper S., Mdee A. and Singhal S. (2021). Infrastructural violence:five axes of inequities in water supply in Delhi, India. Frontiers in Water, 3, 727368.https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2021.727368Latour B. and Weibel P. (eds.) (2020). Critical Zones: The Science and Politics ofLanding on Earth. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, US. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262044455/critical-zones/ (accessed 25 April 2024).Marathe M. (2021). Bāravas: An architectural exploration of the traditional groundwaterstorage structures of puṇe, India. Ancient Asia, 12(3), 1–15. https://ancient-asiajournal.com/article/10.5334/aa.207 (accessed 5 June 2024), https://doi.org/10.5334/aa.207McIntyre A. (2019). Call for robust action to protect grouse on Ilkley Moor. WharfedaleObserver, 31 October. https://www.wharfedaleobserver.co.uk/news/18002876.call-robust-action-protect-grouse-ilkley-moor/ (accessed 25 April 2024)Merchant C. (1989). The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution.Harper & Row, New York, US. https://archive.org/details/deathofnaturewom00merc (accessed 5 June 2024).Mohmand S. K., Loureiro M. and Sida L. (2023). What lies beneath Pakistan’sdisastrous floods. Current History, 122(843), 149–154. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2023.122.843.149Moore J. W. (2015). Capitalism in the Web of Life: Ecology and the Accumulation ofCapital. Verso Books, London and New York City, UK and US. https://www.versobooks.com/en-gb/products/74-capitalism-in-the-web-of-life (accessed 25April 2024).More A., Walsh C. L. and Dawson R. J. (2022). Re-integration of heritage water systems:spatial lessons for present-day water management. Blue-Green Systems, 4(2), 340–347. https://doi.org/10.2166/bgs.2022.121Nagpur Municipal Corporation (2015). Nagpur City Development Plan. JawaharialNehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Government of India.Ogawa K., Garrod G. and Yagi H. (2023). Sustainability strategies and stakeholdermanagement for upland farming. Land Use Policy, 131, 106707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106707Ogden L. A., Hall B. and Tanita K. (2013). Animals, plants, people, and things: a reviewof multispecies ethnography. Environment and Society, 4(1), 5–24. https://doi.org/10.3167/ares.2013.040102Pacini-Ketchabaw V., Taylor A. and Blaise M. (2016). Decentring the human inmultispecies ethnographies. In: Posthuman Research Practices in Education, C.A. Taylor and C. Hughes (eds.), Palgrave Macmillan, UK, pp. 149–167. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137453082_10Proulx A. (2022). Fen, Bog and Swamp: A Short History of Peatland Destruction andits Role in the Climate Crisis. 4th Estate, London, UK. https://www.4thestate.co.uk/products/fen-bog-and-swamp-a-short-history-of-peatland-destructionand-its-role-in-the-climate-crisis-annie-proulx-9780008534417/ (accessed 25April 2024).Purseglove J. (2015). Taming the Food: Rivers, Wetlands and the Centuries-Old BattleAgainst Flooding. William Collins, Glasgow, Scotland. https://harpercollins.co.uk/products/taming-the-flood-rivers-wetlands-and-the-centuries-old-battle-againstflooding-jeremy-purseglove?variant=32610139013198 (accessed 25 April 2024).rightsofwetlands.org (n.d.). Universal Declaration of the Rights of Wetlands. https://www.rightsofwetlands.org (accessed 25 April 2024).Rippon S. (2006). Taming a Wetland Wilderness: Romano-British and MedievalReclamation in the Somerset Levels and Moors. Somerset Archaeological andDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest78 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityNatural History Society, Taunton, UK. http://hdl.handle.net/10036/23673(accessed 5 June 2024).Schofield L. (2022). Wild Fell: Fighting for Nature on a Lake District Hill Farm.Transworld Publishers, London, UK.Sheldrake C. (2020). Cosmo Sheldrake: Subterranea. Land Lines Project. https://landlinesproject.wordpress.com/cosmo-sheldrake-subterranea/ (accessed 25 April2024)Smith R. T and Atherden M. A. (1985). Recent Vegetative Change and the Management ofIlkley Moor, West Yorkshire. Working Paper 414, School of Geography, Universityof Leeds, UK.Sridhar L. (2017). How Bidar beat back the drought. The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/how-bidar-beat-back-the-drought/article18282462.eceSudhira H. S., Ramachandra T. V. and Subrahmanya M. H. (2007). Bangalore. Cities,24(5), 379–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2007.04.003Thompson E. P. (1968). The Making of the English Working Class. Penguin Books, NewYork, US.Tvedt T. (2011). Hydrology and empire: the Nile, water imperialism and the partitionof Africa. The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 39(2), 173–194.https://doi.org/10.1080/03086534.2011.568759UK Government (2021). England Peat Action Plan. Policy paper, Department forEnvironment, Food & Rural Affairs. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/england-peat-action-plan (accessed 25 April 2024)Wallis R. J. (2009). Re-enchanting rock art landscapes: animic ontologies, nonhumanagency and rhizomic personhood. Time and Mind, 2(1), 47–69. https://doi.org/10.2752/175169709X374272Wallis R. J. (2013). Animism and the interpretation of rock art. Time and Mind, 6(1),21–28. https://doi.org/10.2752/175169713X13500468476402Washington H., Chapron G., Kopnina H., Curry P., Gray J. and Piccolo J. J. (2018).Foregrounding ecojustice in conservation. Biological Conservation, 228, 367–374.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.09.011Waylen K. A., van de Noort R. and Blackstock K. L. (2016). Peatlands and culturalecosystem services. In: Peatland Restoration and Ecosystem Services, A. Bonn, T.Allot, M. Evans, H. Joosten and R. Stoneman (eds.), Cambridge University Press,UK, pp. 114–128. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139177788.008Weaver L. (2022). Sounds of the Bog and the Apocalypse. The Sonification. https://thesonification.org/2022/09/20/sounds-of-the-bog-and-the-apocalypse/ (accessed24 April 2024)Wescoat J. L., Bramhankar R., Murty J. V. R., Singh R. and Verma P. (2021). Amacrohistorical geography of rural drinking water institutions in India. WaterHistory, 13(2), 161–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12685-021-00274-8Wienhues A. (2020). Ecological Justice and the Extinction Crisis. 1st edn, BristolUniversity Press, Bristol, UK. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv16t671cWilson L., Wilson J., Holden J., Johnstone I., Armstrong A. and Morris M. (2010).Recovery of water tables in Welsh blanket bog after drain blocking: discharge rates,time scales and the influence of local conditions. Journal of Hydrology, 391(3–4),377–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.042Young D. M., Baird A. J., Morris P. J. and Holden J. (2017). Simulating the long-termimpacts of drainage and restoration on the ecohydrology of peatlands. WaterResources Research, 53(8), 6510–6522. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR019898Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0079© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Natalia Duque, Rocio Manzano Quintero, Federico Pinzón, Carolina Salcedo,Carolina Blanco Moreno, Vicky Azucena Muelas and Rachael MayselsIn Colombia, we can observe numerous similarities with respect to conditionsof ‘scarcity’, particularly concerning poverty, environmental discrimination,restricted land access, and inadequate management and misapplication ofwater. It is frequently difficult to access high-quality water, particularly in ruralareas, which are home to a significant population of indigenous people, afrodescendants, and campesinos (Comisión Económica para América Latina yel Caribe, CEPAL, 2018).1 These demographics have historically experiencedand continue to experience prolonged political, societal, and financialmarginalisation, underrepresentation, and disregard by the government. Theseinequities illustrate the insufficiencies of the traditional justice model, whichdepends on expansionist and neoliberal-orientated globalised capitalism(Yaka, 2019).Rural poverty and ecosystem degradation prevail in Colombia due to fourmajor factors: land concentration, land and water use without regard for ethnicidentity, conflict overexploitation methods, and political and communityinterests that undermine socio-ecological integrity (Gamarra Vergara, 2007).These factors are particularly apparent in the south-western departments ofValle del Cauca and Cauca, which are blighted by seemingly insurmountablechallenges. Exacerbated by the regions’ diverse socio-ecological makeup, conflictoften arises, most commonly over land. Indeed, the department of Cauca, forexample, exhibits the second-highest degree of inequality in the country interms of land distribution (Cauca Chamber of Commerce, 2006; DepartamentoAdministrativo Nacional de Estadística, DANE, 2019).Chapter 4Socio-ecological justice1 Campesino: while this term translates to ‘peasants’ in English, it encompasses a specificdemographic of rural smallholder farmers in Latin America. As such, the Spanish termwill be utilised throughout the book.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest80 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityWith this in mind, the authors of this chapter seek to demonstrate thenecessity of embracing a socio-ecological justice (SEJ) model, leveraging oftenhidden voices from Colombian communities. Indeed, in this chapter, we wantto offer spaces for these voices to be heard.4.1 HIDDEN VOICES OF RURAL CAMPESINO COMMUNITIES INCOLOMBIA AND THE NEED FOR SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL JUSTICENatalia Duque and Rocio Manzano QuinteroIn Colombia, many rural communities are comprised of campesinos. Thecampesino community social structure is based on family and communitynetworks, whose livelihood activities include agro-fisheries, agriculture, andagro-mining. These communities also share a profound connection with nature,acquiring land and constructing their territories primarily through their ownlabour and cultural interactions (Saade Granados, 2020).Throughout Colombian history, various policies have been introducedthat render certain communities invisible; what is ironic is that this politicalmodel is itself subordinated to macroeconomic policies influenced by otherpowerful groups advocating for industrialisation and neoliberal principles.Either way, the policies applied are not designed to affect redistribution,leaving Colombian campesinos without the representation and recognitionthey need to protect their ways of life (Sánchez-Jiménez et  al., 2021).Additionally, many campesino communities have been displaced from theirlands through violence, state-sanctioned neglect, and the influence of otherpowerful entities on the global stage. This has resulted in them settlingin desolate forest reserves and jungles, which was initially encouraged byColombian institutions. Soon, however, these settlers were further abandonedand oppressed (Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2021).Another consequence of neoliberal capitalist policies is that campesinosoften find themselves compelled to adhere to laws that are hard to comprehendand implement without adequate support and technical guidance, as thestate imposes regulations and institutions with no consideration of the socioecological context of campesinos. Colombian laws and policies have historicallyfailed to adequately recognise and represent campesinos. In response to this,campesinos have deemed it essential to devise their own methods of promotingand protecting their identity in accordance with their individual understanding(Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2021). This issue was brought to the forefront by leadersin the Cauca region during the 1990s when they realised the 1991 constitutionfailed to include them as campesinos. As a result, they mobilised to demandinclusion. This demand was finally met in February 2018 when the SupremeCourt of Justice ordered the National Administrative Department of Statistics(Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica) to include campesinosin the population census; the Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History(Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia) was also mandated tocarry out further studies to define the concept of ‘campesino’ in greater detail(Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2021).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocio-ecological justice 81The problems of campesino marginalisation and the role of socioecological justiceDespite this acknowledgement, campesino livelihoods and outlooks remainrelatively unchanged in Colombia. Currently, this group remains a marginalisedcommunity, with aspects of its identity and connections to the natural world stilldisregarded, leading to disputes with state and private entities. These becomeparticularly acute when it comes to the allocation and utilisation of land andwater resources. This lack of recognition and proper representation is a formof oppression that can harm social groups, as it tends to distribute resourcesunfairly and misrepresent certain communities (Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2021).Various social movements and communities, including the Colombiancampesinos, oppose the expansionist trends of neoliberal capitalism. Theystrive for the preservation of civil and ecological resources and fight for theircosmovision. At this pivotal moment, we need a new justice model that willallow us to connect recognition, redistribution, representation, production,and reproduction (Yaka, 2019). Justice, as theorised by Yaka (2019), extendsbeyond the terminology used in traditional justice theories (which overlooksthe relationships between humans and non-humans and their consequences forour societal coexistence); Yaka’s theory of SEJ instead reflects how campesinoshave considered their relationship with their territories for generations.As this video explains,SEJ positions justice withina relational ontology thatupholds an inseparableconnection between social andecological phenomena. Thisimplies an understanding ofthe entitlements and concernsof ‘humans in nature’. Theframing of the relationalitybetween human and nonhuman worlds as a matter of justice is a key concern of SEJ.Case studies: Campesinos of the Montañuelas community and therallanderías communityThe community of Montañuelas is located in the sub-basin of the Cali River,which runs through the rural area of the city of Cali in El Saladito in thedepartment of Valle del Cauca. The workforce of the Montañuelas communityis comprised of day labourers, domestic workers, gardeners, constructionworkers, private security personnel, and some skilled professionals. Manyof these individuals have been displaced from other regions due to violencebetween armed groups and land disputes over ethnic divisions (Figure 4.1–4.3).2 According to Colombian regulations, these are the areas that must be permanentlyconserved with natural or artificial forests, in order to protect these same resources orother renewable natural resources (Ministerio de Ambiente de Colombia).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest82 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityGeographically, the community is situated in the national Cali River ProtectedForest Reserve.2 In the words of community leader and co-author Rocio Manzano,who has been a prominent figure in the area for over 20 years, ‘The community’sdevelopment faces limitations due to power relations and vested interests in theFigure 4.1 Map showing the location of the study areas. The community of Montañuelasis identified on the map with a yellow polygon. The rallanderías community is identifiedwith a red polygon. Both communities are located in the Upper Cauca River Basin, insouth-western Colombia. (Credit: Natalia Duque and Rocio Manzano Quintero).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocio-ecological justice 83territory by capitalist communities. Consequently, the community’s land tenure,access to water, and legitimacy within the area are affected.’Meanwhile, the rallanderías community is located in the Quinamayó andOvejas sub-basins:3 Most of them are in Mondomo in Santander de Quilichao,with others in the Caldono and Piendamó municipalities in the departmentof Cauca. For over 100 years, the rallanderías have engaged in collaborativefamily traditions that involve producing cassava starch. Previously, productionwas largely undertaken manually by displaced women. Between 2019 and2022, however, labour and raw materials (cassava) were scarce, and illicitcoca cultivation was on the rise, which had an adverse impact on the industry(Aguirre & Manyoma, 2019). An adequate supply of water is needed for theoptimal functioning of the rallanderías: the daily consumption of these agroindustries ranges from 50 m3 (cubic litres) to 120 m3.One of the major issues faced by those working in cassava processing is wastedisposal, which often goes untreated and is dumped into rivers and streams.According to co-author Natalia’s doctoral research, the levels of organic matterpollution range from 3600 to 9000 mg/L Chemical Oxygen Demand and 1200to 4000 mg/L Biochemical Oxygen Demand.4 Additionally, residual cyanide isdischarged in the range of 3 to 4.79 mg CN/L per plant in a working day. Suchpollution levels can lead to severe damage to socio-ecosystems situated nearby(Figure 4.4).3 Rallanderías is the common name given to people who produce and participate in theelaboration of sour cassava starch in the north of the Cauca.4 Natalia’s doctoral thesis has been developed in collaboration with cassava starch agroindustrialists; its general objective is to formulate a social-ecological strategy for themanagement of wastewater in cassava-processing plants, applied to the context of theAndean zone of the department of Cauca, Colombia.Figure 4.2 Participatory workshops: (a) campesino community of Montañuelas, Cali,Valle and (b) the rallanderías community of North Cauca. (Credit: Natalia Duque and RocioManzano Quintero).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest84 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityMethodologyA collaborative investigation was carried out using qualitative research withparticipatory methods, including participatory workshops, field visits, semistructured interviews, and participant observation in both study areas. It isimportant to note that one of the authors, Rocio, is herself a community leaderFigure 4.4 Photographs of the campesinos of the rallanderías. (Credit: Natalia Duque andRocio Manzano Quintero).Figure 4.3 Photographs of the diverse population of Montañuelas. (Credit: Natalia Duqueand Rocio Manzano Quintero).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocio-ecological justice 85in the rural region of the Valle del Cauca, and thus experienced the social issuesin the study area first-hand.The authors of this spotlight have a long history of working in the studyarea; as such, they are familiar with the communities. The objective of thisresearch is to analyse both communities’ perception of water justice and theirvision for the future. The authors used a participatory action research (PAR)methodology, collecting and analysing information with community membersto address their problems and promote political and social changes. Emergingout of innovations in social sciences and the arts in 1970s Latin America(Bonilla et al., 1972), PAR is based on the researcher inserting themselves intothe community, analysing historical and social conditions, developing a level ofconsciousness among community members, and generally conducting researchfocused on problem-solving within the community or group.We invited representatives from both communities (each of which iscurrently underrepresented in water security research and policy), to sharetheir perceptions of justice related to water usage and management, alongsidetheir current and future vision of and relationship to water. Opening with theguiding question ‘What is justice?’, we then aimed to spark a dialogue thatwent beyond a superficial response to the topic, resulting in a comprehensiveexamination of the vision of justice and its practical implications for the ruralcommunities involved.During the research process, it was established that negative impacts on watersources are not solely determined by technical factors, but also influenced bysocial and cultural components within the community’s perspective on nature.These interrelational factors must be considered when addressing issues relatedto water preservation.Individual and collective positions of communities on ownership, use,and tenure of water and soilElizabeth,5 secretary of the Community Action Boards (Juntas de AcciónComunal [JAC]) in Montañuelas,6 understands justice as the ‘equality ofopportunities for human rights’. When discussing its relationship to water, shehighlighted the lack of such justice, stating ‘There is no drinking water, whichgenerates problems with the government’, before adding, ‘the state does notfulfil its duty to supply this liquid, which could be solved if the community weretaken into account, but we are invisible to the government’.For her part, Teresa (co-owner of a rallandería, where cassava starch isproduced), emphasised the issue of representation, contending, like Elizabeth,that she does not see herself represented in governmental policies: ‘Within thecommunity, we are seen as micro-entrepreneurs who provide employment,while the government only sees us as a source of tax revenue.’5 Names have been changed to protect the identities of the accompanying communities.6 Juntas de Acción Comunal (Community Action Boards) are responsible for ensuring thefulfilment of human rights with the municipal and departmental authorities, as well ascontributing to the integral and sustainable development of a community. They are electedby popular vote and their area of action is determined by neighbourhood or village.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest86 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityPedro (owner of another rallandería), not only called for recognition, but alsostressed the importance of co-constructing political processes that considersocio-ecological context: ‘I call on state entities to approach us so that we canbuild a better life, and also do our best for these watersheds, which we want todo, but it’s not just those of us who live here who are part of the problem.’Elizabeth, Teresa, and Pedro noted that justice based on the neoliberalcapitalist model frequently fails to take into account the communitiesand ontologies present in rural Colombia, leading to ongoing conflicts,decontextualised regulations, human displacement, and overexploitation ofnature. Campesino communities specifically prioritise their culture’s collectiveand individual interests, which are closely tied to their relationship with thenatural world.Ignorance and a lack of contextualised representation have resulted innumerous longstanding injustices against the Colombian rural population.One such example is the ongoing situation in Montañuelas, where the fight foraccess to drinking water has been fought on various fronts, including the legalsystem. Community leaders such as Rocio have played a pivotal role. In 2018,they won a popular action,7 according to which the local government of Caliwas compelled to provide access to drinking water. But as of December 2023,the community was still without said drinking water. Carmenza, the presidentof the JAC of Montañuelas, expressed outrage that no action that been takensince the community’s victory in August 2018, and further pointed out that thisinaction violated human rights. As such, she emphasised the need for urgentaction, exclaiming: ‘We have the right to water! But in reality, we don’t havewater, we don’t even have raw [untreated] water! As I told you: we have to filljars to have water, we wait for water from the sky, from the rain.’ Similarly,Milton (a community leader in Montañuelas) commented: ‘Others of us bringjars of water for human consumption from Cali.’Concerning the unfair allocation of water, Ana Judith, a 57-year-oldinhabitant of Montañuelas, stated:‘I was born in my village … When we were children, we had to carry waterfrom far-away places … This is unfairness of the social classes; those whohave money have the right to water, those of us who are poorer do nothave the right to water; if people were sensitive, if there were equity insociety, this bias would not exist.’Article 665 of the Colombian Civil Code states that ‘real rights’ encompassownership, inheritance, usufruct,8 use or habitation, and similar rights.These rights should lead to concrete actions, as demonstrated by the recent7 In procedural law, a popular action is the legal action by which the public authoritiesand, in general, any citizen are legitimised to erase the action of the administration ofjustice in defence of collective or diffuse interests (National Constituent Assembly ofColombia, 1991). 8 The Oxford English Dictionary defines usufruct as ‘the right to enjoy the use andadvantages of another’s property short of the destruction or waste of its substance’.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocio-ecological justice 87successful popular action. Nevertheless, the hierarchical nature of humanrights enforcement undermines justice, as Milton observed:‘Although we have the right to clean water, there is no guarantee thatwe will have access to it, and my community is currently at risk ofdisplacement. The state, through police action, plans to evict us by force,alleging that we are an inadequate settlement in a forested region thatendangers our surroundings, compelling us to vacate the area and departunder legal duress.’From all of this, we see that the current focus lies in land ownership, insteadof water.Unlike the situation facing Montañuelas farmers, the issue for cassava agroindustrialists in Cauca does not concern water supply. Teresa from Piendamó(Cauca) stated, ‘We have not suffered water shortages.’ Similarly, Leonardo(co-owner of a rallandería) affirmed that ‘the quantity and quality of water issufficient, which allows for personal and community development.’ However,water is unequally distributed, which makes for injustice, increasingly feltduring the dry season. According to an independent rallandería worker namedAlejandra, conflicts arise between campesino and indigenous communities overwater during prolonged dry periods, and rallandería owners tend to overusewater, limiting its availability for other purposes.Authorities often expect strict adherence to laws, but when these laws areformulated without taking into account the socio-ecological context of ruralpopulations, they can create significant challenges. These communities oftenstruggle to understand and comply with the laws, which is compounded bytheir difficulty accessing even basic resources. This is particularly challengingfor cassava farmers, who must follow wastewater regulations that do nottake their specific circumstances into account. These farmers generally lacktechnical assistance, while also navigating different regulations among stateand local entities. Samuel (owner of a rallandería) highlights the sentiments ofcassava processors:‘Look, I have done everything I know how to do in terms of watermanagement, I don’t know what else to do. The environmental authoritiesor anyone else involved in the matter only exert police pressure, butthe support from them is almost nil and it seems as if they [the cassavaprocessors] are talking to deaf people.’Given the tensions that exist in both communities, it is clear that the currentjustice model in Colombia does not comprehend the contextual complexities inthe territories. As argued by Yaka (2019), justice cannot exist in isolation fromsocial struggles. To include the relational character of human and non-humanlife, our conception of justice needs to be expanded. Accordingly, nature shouldbe framed as an integral part of the social world, rather than being viewed asa separate entity. In these two specific cases, the communities do not expresstheir relationship with the natural world directly. However, evidence of thisrelationship is apparent, not only due to the campesinos’ cultural tradition ofDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest88 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitya close bond with nature, but also because their primary concerns relate to theaccessibility, distribution, and utilisation of water and land.We furthermore noted that although the communities that participated inthe project did not directly refer to SEJ, they were aware of its principles, orrather, they were aware of the need for a different kind of justice. Judith fromMontañuelas said: ‘If people were sensitive to each other and to nature, if therewas justice in society, there would not be so many prejudices.’ Carmenza added:‘Yes, we have learned to be animals of habit, to get used to things, today in myhouse the reuse of water predominates, not only for my benefit but also becausethe river deserves to flow.’On the previous point, Mauricio (owner of a rallandería) commented:‘I have the responsibility to use water well, to minimise its impact onthe environment and to contribute to its conservation through thereclamation and reforestation of land, not only for myself and the restof the community, but also because I want the river to live again, but myefforts are useless because the government has forgotten us.’SEJ aims to transcend the dichotomy between social and ecological justiceby situating justice within a relational ontology between social and ecologicalphenomena. The concept of ‘humans in nature’ involves recognising theinterconnectedness between humans and their environment – and in turnprotecting the rights and interests of both parties so that they can coexist andflourish without harm or degradation (Yaka, 2019). SEJ prioritises diversity andcontextualised justice, where the ‘how’ of a policy depends on the ‘who’ (Popeet al., 2021). This would enable fair and appropriate decision-making processesthat consider the needs and perspectives of the campesinos in the study areas.Predictions from the hidden campesino voices of the Montañuelas andthe rallanderías on water security in 40 yearsRecognising the communities’ feelings about the relationship between water,community, and state in the previous section allowed us to explore theparticipants’ vision of water in the future. The following is a summary of theimpressions gathered.Milton said:‘Firstly, we all have to have it [water] because now we defend ourselveswith what they [the state] leave us; in order to have water and waterquality in 40 years, we all have to do our part so that the water is notaffected by pollution and the bad use we make of the rivers by throwingwaste into them. We must take care of the headwaters and water sourcesthat are essential for life.’For her part, Ana Judith (Montañuelas) suggested that ‘the government shouldcreate clear public policies, we should continue to take care of the streams byplanting trees’. Maria (Montañuelas) added: ‘The future is complex, and as weconsider the planet, it is crucial to take care of it as it is a vital part of us; whilethere are extensive regulations and talk about the rights of nature, the truth isDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocio-ecological justice 89that nature is weakened.’ Both expressed that fair community participation isthe key to ensuring access to water for future generations.The rural communities in Cauca acknowledge the ecological and social issuesarising from water usage. As Alejandra (part of the rallanderías community)warned, ‘I think that in about 10 years we will begin to suffer all the damagewe have done to the planet.’ Jeronimo stated: ‘Everything must change, andwhat needs to change the most is education, which should be relevant to ourculture, territory, and the diversity and richness of our ecosystems.’ We mustalter people’s attitudes towards water, teaching them to value it more since itis crucial for sustenance. Likewise, Teresa said: ‘Presently we are in a criticalphase as decisions related to this essential resource will have far-reachingeffects. To ensure the conservation of this vital resource, it is imperative forthe government to enforce the existing regulations.’ Abelardo (owner of arallandería) added: ‘I see the future as complicated … as water usage increasesin both economic and social sectors. Population growth leads to diminishedforest areas, which directly impacts water.’ Furthermore, Alejandra wonderedwhether ‘the future use of water may be plentiful in quantity but poor in quality,as rivers may be converted to pipes’.It is evident that the participating communities see themselves as aninterconnected component of their environment. Their responses indicate thattheir own livelihoods depend on the preservation of nature and that they asindividuals see themselves as sharing a joint responsibility with the governmentto do so. However, this model falls apart somewhat, as the government’s supportfor these individuals is generally disjointed, insufficient, and intermittent.Antonio (owner of a rallandería) confirms this: ‘First of all, it is rare for thegovernment to intervene and when it does it is ineffective and sporadic. Thetraining we receive is basic, they play games and force you to fill in a form toget paid. All of this is of no practical use.’ Likewise, the state has provided littlesupport in Montañuelas in relation to water demands: a commission has beenauthorised to monitor compliance, but thus far very little action has been taken.It is worth recalling Carmenza’s statement that the community’s case was wonin August 2018, but in 2023 residents were still boiling and filtering water toensure access to clean water.These stories demonstrate that looking after nature and one’s own well-beingcan intersect, provided that communities interpret themselves as part of theirnon-human surroundings, owing to their relational character (Yaka, 2019). Thisnotion remains ambiguous in the studied communities. Although they sharean ancient heritage of harmonious coexistence with nature, in recent decadesneoliberal capitalism has influenced a change in their thinking that has broughtthem into alignment with neoliberal economic visions. We hope, however, thatthe present system’s inadequacies and the significant injustices it inflicts uponColombian campesinos have increased their awareness and encouraged themto return to feeling a connection with nature. Interviews conducted in bothcommunities provide evidence of this, as the pursuit of justice for themselves isinseparable from their demands for justice for the water systems and the nonhuman life that rely upon them.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest90 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityConclusionThese case studies highlight the continuous political struggle between ruralcommunities and the Colombian state, characterised by centralised processesand challenges related to redistribution, representation, and recognition.These challenges overlook the region’s social-ecological context, complexinterrelationships, and diverse worldviews. Attempts by capitalist-orientatedstates to homogenise socio-ecosystems are common, perpetuating bottom-uphomogenisation and causing losses in social and ecological biodiversity.Frequent struggles to defend the rights of communities and nature exposecommunity leaders and put ancestral knowledge at risk.Justice based on the neoliberal capitalist model not only disregards thecampesinos in the Montañuelas and rallanderías communities, but also thenatural environment. This detrimentally affects rural areas in Colombia,which is globally acknowledged for its exceptional diversity of flora and fauna,particularly in the Pacific region, where the communities in this study aresituated: this region is unparalleled in terms of biodiversity compared withsimilar regions worldwide (Rangel-Ch, 2015). Our analysis of these communitiesdemonstrates that while many individuals continue to see themselves asconnected to the natural environment, neoliberalism has become ingrainedthroughout society, creating a dissonance between their conceptualisation ofjustice and their traditional ontologies that SEJ seeks to overcome.In conclusion, SEJ allows us to address the issues that exist in Colombia’srural areas more effectively. In light of this, a substantial change in policy isneeded, which can facilitate genuine support for communities, while takinginto account their socio-ecological requirements. As illustrated in bothcommunities, conventional justice falls short and results in disputes andinequities, especially in Montañuelas where state-forced displacement hastaken place. In this instance, purported environmental protection pushes outpeasant communities, and subsequently, these lands are allotted to influentialeconomic interests that partake in activities that were once restricted.4.2 POLITICAL LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN IN THE UPPER CAUCARIVER BASIN, COLOMBIAFederico Pinzón, Carolina Salcedo, Carolina Blanco Moreno, Natalia Duque‘Our River Cauca has been an example of resilience in the face of all thatit had to suffer during the armed conflict.’Nelly Guapacha (2023)The Cauca River is in a process of gradual deterioration, suffering changes inits water quality, riparian ecosystems (i.e. wetlands, madreviejas,9 and lagoons),9 A madrevieja is a still body of water formed by the erosion of a river in one of its sharpbends (Ramírez et al., 2000). Separated from the main stream, it has a characteristiccrescent shape and usually receives water during the rainy season through surfacetributaries of the river, other drainages and the water table (Flores and Mondragón,cited in Ramírez et al., 2000).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocio-ecological justice 91and ecosystem services. This is due to the sum of anthropogenic stressorssuch as dams, canalisation of tributaries, construction of irrigation canals,eutrophication, point and diffuse pollution discharges, mining, illicit crops,urbanisation processes, and sugar cane agro-industry (Galvis, 2017), in additionto the impacts generated by natural phenomena such as the El Niño-SouthernOscillation (ENSO),10 aggravated by the climate change crisis (González-López& Carvajal-Escobar, 2020).Colombia is a country that has been riven by armed conflict for more than50 years, impacting human lives, memories, identities, and descendants, as wellas ecosystems and nature (Pérez-Rincón et al., 2022). Following the signingof a peace agreement between the Government of Colombia and the guerrillaRevolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia in 2016, the country saw someprogress in terms of reparation and reconciliation, such as the restitution ofland to victims of forced displacement (Law 1448, 2011) and the recognitionof the ecosystemic impact on natural resources (Rajland et al., 2023). Sincethe beginning of the war, the Cauca River has been a dumping ground formining chemicals and illicit crops, as well as a mass grave of armed conflict andviolence. For this reason, the Special Jurisdiction for Peace named the CaucaRiver as a victim of the armed conflict in Colombia (Jurisdicción Especial parala Paz, JEP, 2023).The riparian communities of the Upper Cauca River Basin, mostly afrodescendants, have been recognised by the Colombian Political Constitutionsince Law 70 of 1993; this, under Decree 1745 of 1995, allowed for the creationof community councils as the ethnic authority in charge of administering thecollective territories of black, afro-colombian, raizal (an ethnic group from theArchipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, off of Colombia’sCaribbean coast) and palenquero (descendants of enslaved Africans who soughtrefuge in territories along the north coast of Colombia) communities (Unidadde Restitución de Tierras, URT, 2016). Community councils are the owners ofthe collective territories awarded to them, and it is their right to administerthem according to their organisational policies, cultural traditions, and lifeprojects (community goals). It is also their duty to safeguard their ecosystemsand develop the traditional land use practices responsibly, ensuring that theterritories are used sustainably. In this way, the community councils have ledhistorical struggles for the conservation of water bodies and the life of theircommunities, integrating their bio-cultural values into ecosystems such as theCauca River.Under this premise, and recognising that black communities have historicallyexperienced processes of marginalisation, violence, and displacement, as wellas the non-inclusion of their leaders in land use planning processes, whichforces people to fight for justice in their lives and territories, we highlight theperspectives of two women leaders: Dany Mileidy from the community of Bocas10 ENSO is one of the most important climatic events in Colombia. There are twovariations: El Niño, characterised by high temperatures and extreme droughts; and LaNiña, characterised by low temperatures and extreme rain.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest92 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitydel Palo and Nelly Guapachafrom the community ofHormiguero. Both are afrodescendant women whofight for the conservation oftheir territories, ecosystems,and the Cauca River.11 Thevideo shown here highlightsthe challenges affectingthe territories of these twowomen leaders, which can beextrapolated to the reality of many riverside communities in Colombia. Wehave pulled out some key quotations from Dany and Nelly as follows:‘The great challenges that we have faced as leaders and as mourners ofour territory have been the sugar cane guilds. I think that these guildshave been the white elephants that have deteriorated all those ecosystemsthat we have within our territory.’‘Apart from the state’s neglect of the municipality, Jamundí is amunicipality that has been badly mismanaged at a territorial level. Andwhat has caused this? What has been directly impacting the communitycouncils? Expansion zones. These expansion zones not only change ourculture, they change our mobility. They change and alter everything thathas to do with our territory.’Dany Mileidy (2023)‘The sugar cane guilds are causing erosion because they’re located verynear the River Cauca, where the trees and bamboo used to be, holdingthe land. They no longer exist. And if you go upstream, it’s terrifying. Thesugar cane? How the riverbanks are falling, being eaten away by the river.’‘We did a tour of the River Cauca and we could see how the river has beenchannelled, how the river is eroding. They’re built on wetlands, Bochalemaand Ciudad Pacifica [expansion zones of Cali] are on wetlands.’Nelly Guapacha (2023)We consider the role of afro-descendant women in the community councilsin defence of nature and their bio-cultural legacy to be an expression of SEJin the riverside territories of the Cauca River. The sense of justice and ethicsof care, expressed in the political leadership of these two women, reveals adifferent relationship with nature as an entity that deserves to be respected.This alternative vision separates itself from an instrumental perspectiveof nature, based on the nature’s utility as a source of resources, presentinginstead an ontological dimension. They recognise that nature is a subject that11 With thanks to Alex Mauricio Villegas and Mariela Garcia.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocio-ecological justice 93suffers injustices, that responds according to the actions of human beings –consequently, they advance a vision of fair conditions in the territories thatcan only be achieved when the intrinsic rights of nature are recognised.4.3 THE KISGÓ COMMUNITY, COLOMBIA: ORIGINS AND PRACTICESIN WATERVicky Azucena Muelas, Rachael MayselsFor many indigenous cultures, there is no separation between the well-being oftheir community and the territories in which they live. For the members of anindigenous community of Kisgó in south-western Colombia, their connectionwith nature goes beyond instrumental value: it is a kinship based on respectand reciprocity, in which the Kisweños consider themselves to be ‘children ofwater’. Thus, when ecological injustices occur, they occur not just to the land,but to the community itself.The Kisgó reservation is located in the Andean region of the department ofCauca, with about 4000 inhabitants living in the hydrologically lush (there areover 500 springs!) and biodiverse territory. During their centuries-long strugglefor autonomy, recognition, and cultural preservation, the community andterritory have faced many injustices, from displacement, land-grabbing, landexploitation, and impoverishment, to violent conflict (which has taken bothhuman and more-than-human victims). Yet despite the intersectional challengesthat the Kisweños face, they are actively working towards territorial sovereigntyfor themselves and non-human beings through practising and recoveringindigenous, ancestral knowledge, which has primarily been transmitted orallyfor generations (Figure 4.5).Figure 4.5 Illustrations depicting the Kisgó community origin story. (Credit: Vicky AzucenaMuelas).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest94 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityIn this spotlight on SEJ, we present two videos in which the interconnectednessbetween the Kisweños and their territory, as well as their efforts with regard tojustice, are told through the voice of the Kisgó people themselves.In the first video, Kisgócommunity leader VickyAzucena Muelas beautifullytells us the origin story of herpeople as descendants fromthe Kisgó lake. She introducesthe video with the followingwords:‘What I want to tell today isnot a story or a fable; whatI am writing today is what my father and mother taught me. My name isVicky Azucena Muelas, I am indigenous from the Kisgó people (in Cauca,Colombia), and I am proud to write about my territory. To understandwhat is going to be written here, it is necessary to leave academia andthe conception of science that proves everything. The origins of thecommunity of Kisgó comes from being and feeling the world – for theKisweño that beginning of being comes from the water, that is to say‘we are children of the water and of the woman of the lake’, the womanwho with wisdom guided the path of a people that was dominated byCatholicism, blinded by the path already established by the ancestors.Before continuing, it is important to tell our history. The mapping ofmemory is the way in which we conceive our origin.’The second videointroduces the ancestralpractice of sowing water,which the Kisgó communityutilised to recover the sacredKisgó lake. This is a practicerooted in ancestral knowledgeand a profound relationshipwith the land, showcasing thedeep ties between humansand nature; we learn that ourfoundational well-being depends on that of the natural world that surroundsus and on which we depend. It is significant to point out that the practice ofsowing water is customarily led by the women of the Kisgó community. AsVicky Azucena Muelas notes:‘The Kisgó community has established that the Kisweño women are leaderswhen it comes to caring for and protecting their culture and territory,because it is them who carry the seed in their wombs. Just as the lakegave birth to the great Kiwa cacique, each Kisweño who arrives on Earthmust continue to care for the water as the main foundation of life, culture,Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocio-ecological justice 95and identity, as well as of the great Kisweño territory. The leadership ofwomen has been so fruitful that today we young people do take care of thespiritual being that runs through our territory. Just as blood flows throughthe body and keeps us alive, water does the same; that is why the childrenof the water take care of our mother in order to survive.’The Kisweño people show us that justices and injustices are driven by valuesand beliefs; how we relate to people and the natural world is foundationalfor our behaviours and decisions. These messages invite us to reflect on ourrelationship with the water that sustains us, as well as on how we can offergratitude and well-being to water itself.REFERENCESAguirre E. and Manyoma P. (2019). Agricultural supply chains prioritization fordevelopment of affected areas by the Colombian conflict. In: Advanced Studiesin Multi-Criteria Decision Making, S. B. Amor, A. T. D. Almeida, J. L. D. Mirandaand E. Aktas (eds.), Chapman and Hall/CRC, New York, US, 111–121, https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315181363-6Bonilla V., Castillo G., Libreros A. and Fals Borda O. (1972). Causa Popular, CienciaPopular (Popular Cause, Popular Science). Publicaciones de La Rosca, Bogotá,Colombia.Cauca Chamber of Commerce. (2006). Agenda Interna del Cauca (Internal Agenda ofCauca). Colciencias, Popayan, Colombia. https://repositorio.ccc.org.co/entities/publication/2f9549cb-d971-4005-a7f0-0c531cdd8ccb (accessed 5 June 2024)Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL)(Economic Commissionfor Latin Amercia and the Caribbean). (2018). Economic Survey of Latin Americaand the Caribbean 2018. Evolution of Investment in Latin America and theCaribbean: Stylized Facts, Determinants and Policy Challenges. https://www.cepal.org/en/publications/43965-economic-survey-latin-america-and-caribbean2018-evolution-investment-latin (accessed 25 April 2024)Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE)(National AdministrativeDepartment of Statistics). (2019). Resultados Censo Nacional de Población YVivienda 2018; Popayán, Cauca (Results of the 2018 National Population andHousing Census; Popayan, Cauca). Government of Colombia. https://www.dane.gov.co/files/censo2018/informacion-tecnica/presentaciones-territorio/190814-CNPVpresentacion-Resultados-generales-Cauca.pdf (accessed 25 April 2024)Galvis A. (2017). Estado del Arte Sobre la Calidad del río Cauca. Foro Nacional EInternacional Recuperación del río Cauca: Toma de Decisiones Oportunas Para elAbastecimiento de Agua en la Región (State of the art on the Quality of the CaucaRiver. National and International Forum for the Recovery of the Cauca River:Making Timely Decisions for the Water Supply in the Region). Universidad delValle, Instituto Cinara, Santiago de Cali, Colombia.Gamarra Vergara J. R. (2007). La Economía del Departamento del Cauca: Concentraciónde Tierras Y Pobreza (The Economy of the Department of Cauca: LandConcentration and Poverty). No. 95, Banco de la Republica, Centro de EstudiosEconómicos Regionales, Cartagena, Colombia. https://www.banrep.gov.co/sites/default/files/publicaciones/archivos/DTSER-95.pdf (accessed 25 April 2024)González-López N. and Carvajal-Escobar Y. (2020). Caracterización de sequíashidrológicas en el río Cauca en su valle alto (characterization of hydrologicalDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest96 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitydrought in the Cauca river high valley). Tecnología Y Ciencias del Agua, 11(1),235–265, https://doi.org/10.24850/j-tyca-2020-01-06Jurisdicción Especial para la Paz (JEP)(Special Jurisdiction for Peace). (2023). La JEPAcredita Como Víctima al Río Cauca en el Caso 05 (JEP Credits the Cauca River asA Victim in Case 05). Comunicado 080, Bogotá, Colombia. https://www.jep.gov.co/Sala-de-Prensa/Paginas/-la-jep-acredita-como-victima-al-rio-cauca-en-el-caso-05.aspx (accessed 25 April 2024)National Constituent Assembly of Colombia. (1991). Constitución Política deColombia (Political Constitution of Colombia). Bogotá, Colombia, https://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/inicio/Constitucion-Politica-Colombia-1991.pdf(accessed 5 June 2024)Pérez-Rincón M., Peralta Ardila M. D. P., Méndez F. and Vélez-Torres I. (2022). Conflictoarmado interno y ambiente en Colombia: Análisis desde los conflictos ecológicos,1960–2016 (Internal armed conflict and environment in Colombia: analysis fromecological conflicts, 1960–2016). Journal of Political Ecology, 29(1), 672–703,https://doi.org/10.2458/jpe.2901Pope K., Bonatti M. and Sieber S. (2021). The what, who and how of socio-ecologicaljustice: tailoring a new justice model for earth system law. Earth System Governance,10, 100124, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2021.100124Rajland B., Burgos Matamoros M. and Machado Fagundes L. (coords.) (2023). DerechosHumanos y Pensamientos Jurídicos Críticos Desde Nuestramérica (Human Rightsand Critical Legal Thoughts From Our America), 1st edn. CLACSO, CiudadAutónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina. https://biblioteca-repositorio.clacso.edu.ar/bitstream/CLACSO/248285/1/Derechos-humanos-pensamientos-juridicos.pdf(accessed 25 April 2024)Ramírez L. J., Vásquez G. L., Navarrete A. V., Vásquez C. M. and Orjuela Jorge J. E.(2000). Estado sucesional de los humedales Madrevieja Guarinó, Ciénaga LaGuinea, Caño El Estero, Laguna Pacheco, Madrevieja Lili, Madrevieja Gota eLeche, Madrevieja Chiquique, Madrevieja La Herradura y Laguna Bocas de Tuluá.Localizados en los municipios de Cali, Jamundí, Bolívar y Tuluá, Departamentodel Valle del Cauca (Successional status of the Madrevieja Guarinó wetlands, LaGuinea Swamp, El Estero Creek, Pacheco Lagoon, Madrevieja Lili, MadreviejaGota e Leche, Madrevieja Chiquique, Madrevieja La Herradura and Bocas deTuluá Lagoon. Located in the municipalities of Cali, Jamundí, Bolívar and Tuluá,Department of Valle del Cauca). Corporación Autónoma Regional del Valle delCauca, Santiago de Cali, Colombia.Rangel-Ch J. O. (2015). La biodiversidad de Colombia: significado y distribución regional(Colombia’s biodiversity: meaning and regional distribution). Revista De LaAcademia Colombiana De Ciencias Exactas, Físicas Y Naturales, 39(151), 176–200, https://doi.org/10.18257/raccefyn.136Saade Granados M. (ed.) (2020). Conceptualización del Campesinado en Colombia:Documento Técnico Para su Definición, Caracterización Y Medición(Conceptualisation of the Lower Class in Colombia: Technical Document forits Definition, Characterisation and Measurement). Instituto Colombiano deAntropología e Historia (ICANH), Bogotá, Colombia. https://publicaciones.icanh.gov.co/index.php/picanh/catalog/book/31 (accessed 25 April 2024)Sánchez-Jiménez W., Passos-Blanco M., Salazar-Ríos J. H. and Rivas-Guzmán A. (2021).Luchas y resistencias campesinas en Colombia (Peasant struggles and resistancein Colombia). Libre Empresa, 18(2), 63–90. https://revistas.unilibre.edu.co/index.php/libreempresa/article/view/9262 (accessed 25 April 2024)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestSocio-ecological justice 97Unidad de Restitución de Tierras (URT)(Land Restitution Unit). (2016). Los Derechos alTerritorio, A la Identidad Cultural Y A la Restitución de las Comunidades Negras,Afrocolombianas, Raizales Y Palenqueras (The Rights to Territory, CulturalIdentity and Restitution of the Black, Afro-Colombian, Raizal and PalenqueraCommunities). United Nations Refugee Agency, Bogotá, Colombia. https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/BDL/2017/11028.pdf (accessed 25 April 2024)Yaka O. (2019). Rethinking justice: struggles for environmental commons and the notionof socio-ecological justice. Antipode, 51(1), 353–372, https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12422Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0099© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Victoria Anker, Rachael Maysels and Maria Valasia PeppaPrinciple 1Justice – conclusion1 Campesino: while this term translates to ‘peasants’ in English, it encompasses a specificdemographic of rural smallholder farmers in Latin America. As such, the Spanish termwill be utilised throughout the book.The spotlights in the justice principle have showcased the need to recognisehuman and more-than-human injustices related to water insecurity, to includediverse values and voices, such as of those who are more affected by waterinsecurity, in decision-making, and to validate non-technocratic approachestowards water management systems.These case studies from a range of different contexts indicate that similarintersectional injustices take place across the globe, including displacement (inboth urban and rural settings), disproportionate impact on already impoverishedpeople, a loss of territorial autonomy, and governmental neglect – and all of thisis perpetuated and exacerbated by the neoliberal hegemonic powers that be. Wehave seen that social and ecological justices are enmeshed and therefore bestapproached via the lens of intersectionality.However, while many of the groups – both human and more-than-human –featured in these spotlights still endure grave injustices, these case studiesalso highlight their innovation and resilience in the face of adversity, withthe establishment of community water management associations in the UpperCauca River Basin (Chapter 1.1), collaboration and collective action in Delhi(Chapter 2.1), and self-organised urban farming in Addis Ababa (Chapter 2.3).We have seen that historically marginalised communities such as the smallscale farmers in the Yamuna Basin (Chapter 2.2), indigenous, afro-descendant,and campesino communities in south-west Colombia (Chapter 4), and morethan-human peatland communities in the UK (Chapter 3.1) have boldly resistedthe powers that be in defence of rivers for both human use as well as for theintrinsic value of the more-than-human world.1Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest100 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityDrawing on Fraser’s social justice framework, encompassing recognition,representation, and redistribution, we propose a more integrated approachtowards socio-ecological justice (SEJ). In this, we are influenced by indigenousworldviews, according to which nature and people are not considered to beseparate, but rather intertwined and interconnected. In light of this, webelieve that justice should go beyond institutional action and be approachedas a dynamic process that features a diversity of perspectives and takes shapeaccording to the context in which it is applied, subject to monitoring andevaluation (Joshi, 2015).In this section, we’ve learned that justice in relation to water security cannotbe universally understood or applied, as it is inextricably tied to culturalpractices, historical contexts, and local conditions – and therefore we mustcreate processes and spaces in which those who are susceptible to injusticescan participate in decision-making for water management. From planningprocesses, as we’ve seen in the case of Malaysia’s water planning (Chapter 1.2),to decision-making tools, such as water use efficiency approaches in Colombia(Chapter 4) and Palestine (Chapter 1.3), to heritage infrastructure restoration(Chapter 3.2) there are many opportunities to make justice more prominent inwater management.In summary, we advocate for a more proactive approach towards watermanagement that prioritises SEJ by considering the value of water beyondits instrumental value, actively including voices that have been excluded inplanning and decision-making processes, examining the relationship betweenbiophysical and social aspects of water systems, and recognising the knowledgeand solutions that already exist throughout communities worldwide.REFERENCEJoshi D. (2015). Like water for justice. Geoforum, 61, 111–121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.02.020Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_00101© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Maria Valasia Peppa, Carolina Montoya Pachongo andAndrés Fernando Toro VélezOur second principle is that, without knowledge, we cannot have inclusivewater security. Through a series of spotlights, this section explores methods,tools, and frameworks to create an integrated knowledge base for a data-toaction approach.SIGNIFICANCE OF PRINCIPLEKnowledge has the ability to foster inclusion by ensuring accuraterepresentation, fostering connections, and driving innovation. In its absence,and when gatekeepers enforce barriers, exclusion prevails: informationbecomes misrepresented or underrepresented, exists in silos, and stiflescreativity. Therefore, knowledge is crucial in discussions on water security andsustainability. As Polaine et al. (2022) assert, ‘water data is a foundation for anintegrated understanding of the behaviour of water security.’Reliable historic and up-to-date knowledge is indispensable for identifyingwater insecurity patterns and estimating potential risks to respond to hazardsand inform decision-making. Knowledge in the first instance is generatedeither by the collection of primary data, raw observations, and/or the reuseof pre-existing resources, that is the so-called secondary data (Hox & Boeije,2005). Primary and secondary data in the water security context include socioeconomic, socio-cultural, and environmental information in a quantitative and/or qualitative format (Butte et al., 2022). From the synthesis of such data, derivedknowledge can provide a wide spectrum of information on topics such as waterquantity, quality and sanitation infrastructure, socio-environmental pressures,ecological impacts, flood protection management, and so on (Polaine et  al.,2022; van Ginkel et al., 2018). In our contemporary digital world, knowledgecan also be enriched with the aid of open data, open and collaborative science,Principle 2Knowledge – introductionDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest102 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityand artificial intelligence technologies via data-sharing and cloud computingplatforms (IWA, 2021; Sugg, 2022; Walter, 2024).Producing knowledge requires time, money, and resources, due to operationaland labour-intensive procedures. Sometimes discovering knowledge viaprimary data collection is not feasible when, for example, in-situ water samplingis conducted in polluted environments. Hence, data scarcity can be prominentin low-resource and less-developed infrastructure contexts.On the other hand, while the FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable,reusable) principles, initially introduced by Wilkinson et al. (2016) and lateradvanced by the GO FAIR initiative (GO FAIR, 2021), have set compulsorystandards for scientific data management, secondary data can be hidden behindgovernmental and institutional stakeholders (Jensen & Wu, 2018; Sugg, 2022).For example, government agents might impose fees on the public for data access(Sugg, 2022) or might make ‘some data’ available only to researchers and notto everyone (Jensen & Wu, 2018) – and certainly not beyond a nation’s borders(Cory & Dascoli, 2021).Even in the case of recorded secondary water data, which is findable viaexisting open data-sharing and/or -storing platforms, retrieved knowledgeis often not interoperable or reusable, as data can be inconsistent, due to,for example, (i) dysfunctional in-situ hydrological sensors thanks to lack ofmaintenance and infrastructure (Donauer et al., 2020), and (ii) data gaps dueto internet restrictions imposed by governments (Shanahan & Bezuidenhout,2022). In addition, data can be of suboptimal quality, hence inadequate forinforming further decisions, for example due to lack of standardised datacleaning routines. Finally, metadata can be absent, because of limited capacitybuilding across the institutional stakeholders (Sugg, 2022). To that end, eventhough we live in the era of ‘digital water’ (Walter, 2024), we still suffer fromdata scarcity, inaccessibility, and non-credibility; the latter in particular leadsto the ‘data rich but information poor’ syndrome (Ward et al., 1986).PARTIAL AND ONE-SIDED INFORMATIONAs explained in Polaine et  al. (2022), a one-sided framework is completelyinadequate to capture the multidimensional aspects of water securitychallenges. For example, water pollution, a sub-system of water security(Polaine et al., 2022), is an inherently complex issue, stemming from variationsacross geographic contexts (spatial domain) and time (temporal domain), typesof aquatic ecosystems and contaminants, and impacts on different parts ofsociety and ecosystems. In order to understand water pollution, we need atleast a four-question framework of ‘why, how, what, and where’, integratedwith an understanding of the hydro-social cycle of water (Lu et  al., 2016),including the ecological element (hydro-eco-social cycle). In this instance, wewould be looking for answers to questions such as: why is water polluted; howcontaminated is water; what are the impacts of water pollution and where; andwhat are the actions to avoid or remediate water pollution.To take just one of these elements – the question of how contaminated wateris – researchers and practitioners have been developing water quality indicesDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestKnowledge – introduction 103to aggregate several physicochemical and/or biological parameters, calculatedfrom data collected at the point of wastewater discharges or directly in waterbodies to produce one dimensionless value (Ndatimana et al., 2023; Octavianti& Staddon, 2021). Such a value shows the current state of the water quality,according to the specific type of water and intended use (Manna & Biswas,2023). Indices in general serve as standard assessment thresholds that canbe used to regulate the performance of water utility providers (Jensen & Wu,2018). For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines havewell-established national regulations for acceptable contaminated levels ofdrinking water (WHO, 2017).However, sometimes country-level water quality indices providecontradictory information, implying that more knowledge is required to geta holistic overview of water insecurity. For instance, the World Bank hasproduced a global water quality index (Damania et al., 2019) using historicalrecords from 2000 to 2010, showing that the most critical conditions of waterpollution are in densely populated areas across the globe (examples includeNorth America, both Western and Eastern Europe, and parts of Australia, EastAsia, and South Africa).On the other hand, the 2022 Environmental Performance Index (Wolf et al.,2022), based on the disability-adjusted life years lost (DALYs) per 100 000persons exposed to unsafe drinking water, provides a different picture. NorthAmerica, Europe, and Australia are the regions that score the lowest in termsof DALYs and which therefore have the least contaminated drinking water –despite regions in these countries having a high risk of water pollution basedon the aforementioned World Bank index. This contradiction may indicate thatsuch countries have access to innovative treatment technologies that othercountries do not. The two indices coincide only in regions of South Africa andIndia, which have low water quality based on the World Bank index and highlycontaminated drinking water based on their relatively low DALYs score. For adetailed data visualisation of the two indices, you can refer to Damania et al.(2019), Wolf et al. (2022), and World Population Review (2023). However, wemust stipulate that these indices still provide only a partial truth, as it becomesobvious that they follow current development models, dominated by short-termand reductionist approaches to globalisation, economic growth, and socioeconomic inequalities across the globe.Furthermore, as water quality is heavily dependent on the particular hydrosocial conditions of a geographic location, such aforementioned indices providesolely area-specific information (Manna & Biswas, 2023), not always reflectingdynamic temporal changes (Jensen & Wu, 2018). As a result, they can offerlimited knowledge for proactive decision-making. The United States Agency forInternational Development (USAID) has recently introduced new guidelinesin an endeavour to improve knowledge dissemination: these aim to make thewater data process more seamless (USAID, 2020), addressing varying spatialscales with the inclusion of satellite remote-sensing data to complement in-situdiscrete measurements. USAID also advocates for using WHO’s drinking waterguidelines as a starting point for an understanding of water quality. Even so,this initiative has its blind spots, focusing on data-driven analysis and big dataDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest104 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitytechnology and neglecting data related to cultural local knowledge of water.It is not clear whether social data types other than standard questionnairesas  described in Carroll et  al. (2020) were considered in these guidelines(USAID, 2020).Similarly, to address the question of what actions can remediate waterpollution, if we look solely at technology-centric initiatives, technology hasindeed progressed to treat water and make it safe for humans and ecosystems(Coccia & Bontempi, 2023; Shannon et al., 2008). However, technology alonecannot be the sole way to approach water pollution complexity. For example, theemergence of new water pollutants is occurring at a faster rate than the currenttechnological capacity to upgrade water treatment systems. What’s worse,water treatment systems can cause secondary environmental impacts due tohigh energy and chemical demands. Current evidence shows that emergingcontaminants are not removed efficiently in conventional drinking andwastewater treatment systems (Radwan et al., 2023) – and it is even challengingto monitor them effectively because they appear in water at low concentrations,while the cost of analysing them in a laboratory is high (Shannon et  al.,2008). This highlights that there is a pressing need to continuously upgradetechnology – in conjunction with current global commitments (e.g. SustainableDevelopment Goal 6), this puts pressure on governments and private industryto deliver and promote innovative water-related solutions (Mvulirwenande &Wehn, 2020).Furthermore, while digital innovation has indeed increased the transparencyof data resources, reduced the gap between data accessibility and sharing,and supported suppliers in engaging with water consumers via, for example,interactive digital apps (Walter, 2024), there are still several outstandingquestions when it comes to proactively addressing water insecurities. Theseinclude (examples taken from Mvulirwenande & Wehn, 2020): should wefocus on developing new, innovative digital solutions? Should we continuouslyupgrade current technologies? How would this work in low-resource and lessdeveloped infrastructure contexts where public money would be required? Howcan low-cost, existing innovative technologies remediate health impacts onthose contexts (examples of low-cost water treatment technologies in Chaúqueet  al., 2023)? How does innovation incorporate the social aspects of waterperception, use, and behaviours from local communities?Overall, these examples demonstrate the current ‘digital water’ (Walter, 2024)and ‘water innovation’ (Mvulirwenande & Wehn, 2020) landscape, showing anumber of digital water data processes (USAID, 2020) and standards (GO FAIR,2021). All of the above gives us a glimpse of how to reduce water pollution,improve health outcomes, and promote seamless digital sharing platforms for amore inclusive way to address water insecurities. Nonetheless, these trends andframeworks have their limitations, as they are not always produced by diversevoices (including data practitioners or managers, individual water users, localcommunities, policymakers, etc.) in a joint process. In order to achieve this,we need a more mindful approach to data gathering, as spearheaded by recenttheories such as CARE (collective benefit, authority to control, responsibility,and ethics), set out by Carroll et al. (2020), which includes indigenous voicesDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestKnowledge – introduction 105in the process. Still, when developing a data-information-usage pipeline ofwater knowledge that can lead to decision-making, such principles withtransdisciplinary types of voices and local knowledge are yet in their veryinfancy. We hope to further this approach in the course of this section.AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONSThe spotlights that sit in this section are united by the theme of knowledge whileshowcasing different applications of rigorous methodologies and informationintegration. We feature case studies from Colombia, Ethiopia, India, Malaysia,and the UK.In Chapter 5, Data Collection, authors Yady Tatiana Solano-Correa, RixiaZan, Maria Valasia Peppa, and David Chaquea-Romero highlight how collectingmultifarious data provides crucial information at different spatial levels, fromremotely sensed water quantity in a basin, to in-situ microbiological water quality,to people’s water use behaviours in a household setting. While the first spotlightleverages freely available satellite imagery, the second spotlight leverages the latestportable equipment technology. Tatiana demonstrates how to estimate temporalchanges across two water bodies in the Upper Cauca River Basin, Colombia, whichcan then be used to provide early warnings to local communities about potentialflooding or drought. Rixia and Maria then demonstrate how to facilitate waterquality diagnostics with the use of a smart suitcase laboratory that eliminates theneed for expertise and expedites in-situ knowledge. This smart technology hasnow been rolled out to 150 researchers across Africa, Southeast Asia, and SouthAmerica. Finally, in contrast to the first two spotlights that present quantitativedatasets, David demonstrates the design of qualitative data acquisition to analysehuman water use behaviours, particularly with regard to showering. The designfirstly explores the diversity of people’s ways of showering and is then scaled up tocover the municipality of Cali, Colombia. David adopts a methodology that, whilewidely used in social studies, is relatively unknown in residential water demandresearch. Overall, these spotlights show that data gathering, the first step ingenerating knowledge, is a process that should proceed in line with communities’needs and peoples’ practices. They also demonstrate that, on the one hand,technology can expedite data capture, but on the other, advanced methods can betransferred from other disciplines to provide meaningful knowledge.In Chapter 6, Databases, authors Ermias Teferi, Greg O’Donnell, andZulfaqar Sa’adi address the challenges of data scarcity in relation to waterresource management in the Abbay River Basin, Ethiopia and in the JohorRiver Basin, Malaysia. With fragmented, inconsistent, and inaccessible in-situhydrometric and meteorological data of limited spatial coverage, proactive waterresource management cannot be applied. Ermias discusses the establishmentof a national-level data repository (CAMELS-Eth) that allows free access tohydrometric data of various spatio-temporal scales and visualisation tools.Data includes historical flows, hydrologic metrics, remotely sensed open-sourcehydrometeorological data, and geospatial information of 122 catchments in theAbbay River Basin. While addressing the same challenges, Zulfaqar specificallyhighlights the role of global open-source meteorological data in enhancingDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest106 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityunderstanding of climate variability and demonstrates rigorous best practicesfor analysis and validation. He also draws attention to the lack of awarenessof and familiarity with global open-source datasets, and regulatory noncompliance at constitutional levels. Overall, the two spotlights are examplesof how data can be democratised and innovative methods can be adopted indata-sparse regions.In Chapter 7, Data Modelling, Dinesh Kumar and Wegayehu Asfawdemonstrate the necessity of modelling data in different ways to understand,simulate, and predict water resource dynamics for improved decision-making.Dinesh discusses the implementation of the widely used Water Evaluationand Planning model in Delhi, India, incorporating knowledge from a varietyof active players, stakeholders, and policymakers. The model provides futurescenarios for a robust and sustainable water resource management system thatcan address challenges such as urban growth, climate change, and growingwater demand and water distribution losses. Subsequently, Wegayehu predictsurban flood susceptibility in the Akaki catchment, Ethiopia. This spotlighthighlights how state-of-the-art machine learning methods can be applied with aplethora of multi-modal observations to map the likelihood of flooding in a waythat a human expert would not be able to produce so accurately and/or quickly.Machine learning in this context can support the proactive management ofurban and real estate development, infrastructure, public health planning,emergency disaster response, and flood risk alleviation. Overall, both spotlightspresent knowledge that is generated via data model approaches, leveragingadvanced technology to better inform policy decisions.In Data Integration, the final chapter in this principle, the spotlightsdemonstrate how transdisciplinary voices can be integrated into the dataknowledge production pipeline. Diana Marcela Ruiz Ordóñez, Carolina SalcedoPortilla, and Samy Mafla Noguera present an understanding of water quality andecosystem services in the Upper Cauca River Basin, Colombia, derived via socialcartography with geospatial ethnographic practices and continuous interactionwith local communities. By mapping the socio-ecological relationships betweenlocal communities and water use, supply, demand, and values, it is possible tounderstand socio-economic and political drivers that might influence ecosystemservices and potentially lead to water quality degradation in the region. Suchpractices are unique to Latin America, providing a different perspective of dataintegration beyond a solely technological solution, safeguarding water resourcemanagement of indigenous communities, and promoting the CARE principles(Carroll et  al., 2020). Then, Jemila Mohammed Kassa demonstrates howuniversities, institutes, water management, and sewerage agencies in Ethiopiaand the United Kingdom can join forces to educate, exchange knowledge,and monitor water contamination in the Akaki catchment, Ethiopia, with theultimate aim of improving public health. The spotlight expands on the use ofinnovative portable suitcase labs, as introduced in Chapter 5, to address healthissues: Jemila highlights how integrated efforts from both public and privatesectors to scale up and develop scientific knowledge using this smart technologycan help various downstream catchment communities better understand andmanage potential water pollution and health impacts.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestKnowledge – introduction 107REFERENCESButte G., Solano-Correa Y. T., Peppa M. V., Ruíz-Ordóñez D. M., Maysels R., Tuqan N.,Polaine X., Montoya Pachongo C., Walsh C. and Curtis T. (2022). A frameworkfor water security data gathering strategies. Water, 14(18), 2907, https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182907Carroll S. R., Garba I., Figueroa-Rodríguez O. L., Holbrook J., Lovett R., MaterecheraS., Parsons M., Raseroka K., Rodriguez-Lonebear D., Rowe R., Sara R., Walker J.D., Anderson J. and Hudson M. (2020). The CARE principles for indigenous datagovernance. Data Science Journal, 19(1), 43, https://doi.org/10.5334/DSJ-2020-043Chaúque B. J. M., Issufo M., Benitez G. B., Cossa V. C., Chaúque L. G. H., StauberC. E., Benetti A. D. and Rott M. B. (2023). Why do low-cost point-of-use watertreatment technologies succeed or fail in combating waterborne diseases in thefield? A systematic review. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 11(5),110575, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110575Coccia M. and Bontempi E. (2023). New trajectories of technologies for the removalof pollutants and emerging contaminants in the environment. EnvironmentalResearch, 229, 115938, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.115938Cory N. and Dascoli L. (2021). How Barriers to Cross-Border Data Flows Are SpreadingGlobally, What They Cost, and How to Address Them. Information Technology andInnovation Foundation. https://itif.org/publications/2021/07/19/how-barriers-crossborder-data-flows-are-spreading-globally-what-they-cost/ (accessed 11 April 2024)Damania R., Desbureaux S., Rodella A.-S., Russ J. D. and Zaveri E. D. (2019).Quality Unknown: The Invisible Water Crisis (English). The World Bank.https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/537481566459193718/quality-unknown-the-invisible-water-crisis(accessed 11 April 2024)Donauer T., Haile A. T., Goshime D. W., Siegfried T. and Ragettli S. (2020). Gap andopportunity analysis of hydrological monitoring in the Ziway-Shala Sub-basin,Ethiopia. IWMI Working Paper 192, https://doi.org/10.5337/2020.210GO FAIR. (2021). FAIR Principles. https://www.go-fair.org/fair-principles/ (accessed 11April 2024)Hox J. J. and Boeije H. R. (2005). Data collection, primary vs. secondary. In: Encyclopediaof Social Measurement, K. Kempf-Leonard (ed.), Elsevier, Netherlands, 593–599,https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-369398-5/00041-4International Water Association (IWA). (2021). Digital Water. https://iwa-network.org/programs/digital-water/ (accessed 11 April 2024)Jensen O. and Wu H. (2018). Urban water security indicators: development andpilot. Environmental Science & Policy, 83, 33–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018.02.003Lu S., Zhang X., Bao H. and Skitmore M. (2016). Review of social water cycle researchin a changing environment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 63, 132–140, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.071Manna A. and Biswas D. (2023). Assessment of drinking water quality using water qualityindex: a review. Water Conservation Science and Engineering, 8(1), 6, https://doi.org/10.1007/s41101-023-00185-0Mvulirwenande S. and Wehn U. (2020). Dynamics of water innovation in African cities:insights from Kenya, Ghana and Mozambique. Environmental Science & Policy,114, 96–108, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2020.07.024Ndatimana G., Nantege D. and Arimoro F. O. (2023). A review of the application of themacroinvertebrate-based multimetric indices (MMIs) for water quality monitoringin lakes. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30, 73098–73115, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27559-0Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest108 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityOctavianti T. and Staddon C. (2021). A review of 80 assessment tools measuring watersecurity. WIREs Water, 8(3), e1516, https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1516Polaine X. K., Dawson R., Walsh C. L., Amezaga J., Peña-Varón M., Lee C. and Rao S.(2022). Systems thinking for water security. Civil Engineering and EnvironmentalSystems, 39(3), 205–223, https://doi.org/10.1080/10286608.2022.2108806Radwan E. K., Abdel Ghafar H. H., Ibrahim M. B. M. and Moursy A. S. (2023). Recenttrends in treatment technologies of emerging contaminants. EnvironmentalQuality Management, 32(3), 7–25, https://doi.org/10.1002/tqem.21877Shanahan H. and Bezuidenhout L. (2022). Rethinking the A in FAIR data: issues of dataaccess and accessibility in research. Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics,7, 912456, https://doi.org/10.3389/frma.2022.912456Shannon M. A., Bohn P. W., Elimelech M., Georgiadis J. G., Mariñas B. J. and Mayes A.M. (2008). Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades.Nature, 452, 301–310, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06599Sugg Z. (2022). Social barriers to open (water) data. WIREs Water, 9(1), e1564, https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1564United States Agency for International Development (USAID). (2020). Data for WaterSecurity: Improving Water Data Access and Use. USAID in partnership with TetraTech, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, the StockholmEnvironment Institute and the World Resources Institute. https://www.globalwaters.org/sites/default/files/swp-data-ws-8-24-2020.pdf (accessed 11 April 2024)van Ginkel K. C. H, Hoekstra A. Y., Buurman J. and Hogeboom R. J. (2018). Urban watersecurity dashboard: systems approach to characterizing the water security of cities.Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 144(12), 04018075, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.00009Walter C. (2024). Digital technologies for the future of the water sector? Examiningthe discourse on digital water. Geoforum, 148, 103918, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2023.103918Ward R. C., Loftis J. C. and McBride G. B. (1986). The ‘data-rich but information-poor’syndrome in water quality monitoring. Environmental Management, 10, 291–297,https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01867251Wilkinson M. D., Dumontier M., Aalbersberg I. J., Appleton G., Axton M., Baak A.,Blomberg N., Boiten J-W., da Silva Santos L. B., Bourne P. E., Bouwman J., BrookesA. J., Clark T., Crosas M., Dillo I., Dumon O., Edmunds S., Evelo C. T., Finkers R.,Gonzalez-Beltran A., Gray A. J. G., Groth P., Goble C., Grethe J. S., Heringa J., ‘tHoen P. A. C., Hooft R., Kuhn T., Kok R., Kok J., Lusher S. J., Martone M. E., MonsA., Packer A. L., Persson B., Rocca-Serra P., Roos M., van Schaik R., Sansone S.-A.,Schultes E., Sengstag T., Slater T., Strawn G., Swertz M. A., Thompson M., van der LeiJ., van Mulligen E., Velterop J., Waagmeester A., Wittenburg P., Wolstencroft K., ZhaoJ. and Mons B. (2016). The FAIR guiding principles for scientific data managementand stewardship. Scientific Data, 3, 160018, https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.18Wolf M. J., Emerson J. W., Esty D. C., de Sherbinin A. and Wendling Z. A. (2022). 2022Environmental Performance Index (EPI) Results. Yale Center for EnvironmentalLaw & Policy, New Haven, Connecticut, USA. https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2022/component/epi (accessed 11 April 2024)World Health Organization (WHO). (2017). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality.4th edition incorporating the 1st addendum. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241549950 (accessed 11 April 2024)World Population Review. (2023). Water Quality by Country 2024. https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/water-quality-by-country (accessed11 April 2024)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0109© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Yady Tatiana Solano-Correa, Rixia Zan, Maria Valasia Peppa andDavid Chaquea-RomeroData gathering, the first step in generating knowledge, is a process that mustproceed in line with communities’ needs and peoples’ practices. In this chapter,authors present case studies showing how technology can expedite data capturein Colombia and across the globe, as well as demonstrating how advancedmethods can be transferred from other disciplines to provide meaningfulknowledge in Colombia.5.1 MULTITEMPORAL ANALYSIS FOR WATER MONITORING,MANAGEMENT, AND SECURITY FROM A REMOTE-SENSINGPERSPECTIVE IN COLOMBIAYady Tatiana Solano-CorreaOne of the most important external events to affect water in Colombia and theUpper Cauca River Basin (UCRB) is El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) inits two variations: El Niño, characterised by high temperatures and extremedroughts (reducing water availability); and La Niña, characterised by lowtemperatures and extreme rain (increasing water levels, sedimentation, andrisk of rivers overflowing). The effects of climate change have enhancedENSO characteristics, causing widespread problems for Colombia in the pastfew decades. For instance, the La Niña period that occurred in 2010–11 ledto  considerable civil and economic losses and has been named one of theworst natural disasters in Colombian history (Vargas et al. (2018) and Hoyoset al. (2013).Managing the consequences of ENSO events is of great relevance toboth lives and livelihoods. It requires constant monitoring of water quantityand quality, and of land use surrounding different water sources. SuchChapter 5Data collectionDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest110 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitymonitoring can be carried out in several ways, including through use ofremote-sensing techniques. Remote sensing allows us to observe the Earthcontinuously, without coming into physical contact with it: remote sensors arelocated on aerial platforms and satellites, capturing information across theelectromagnetic spectrum (optical and microwave) so that we can characterisethe Earth’s surface features and land cover.1 This is possible thanks to the factthat everything in nature has its own distribution of reflected, absorbed, oremitted energy (Chuvieco, 1990).Use of remote-sensing techniques makes it possible to obtain a detailedcharacterisation of water bodies without the need to embark on expensive,time-consuming and potentially dangerous field campaigns, where conflictscan make the collection of in-situ data difficult (Chawla et al., 2020). Existingoptical remote-sensing studies are commonly performed in areas with (i) idealweather conditions that allow for high-frequency acquisitions of data (i.e.without much obstruction by clouds in the area) or (ii) with large extensionsof water that are easier to analyse with freely available data (Du et al., 2016).Nevertheless, these conditions are not fully satisfied for areas in Colombia,making the use of freely available optical remote-sensing data less common asa solution to water security problems. Therefore, there is a clear need to developmethodologies for optical and microwave satellite imagery that are able to workwith freely available data and in areas with high cloud coverage.Remote-sensing framework in the Upper Cauca River BasinThis case study presents a multitemporal image analysis of the surface areavariations of two water bodies, correlated with water quality, located in theUCRB in Colombia (see Figure 5.1). The UCRB represents an important natural,cultural, social, and economic resource in Colombia, where water sources facecontinuous deterioration, which itself limits water use for human consumption(Sánchez Torres et al., 2022).The left panel of Figure 5.1 shows Salvajina Reservoir (SR) and the rightpanel shows Sonso Lake (SL). SR is located in the department of Cauca (rightbefore the Cauca River crosses into the Valle del Cauca) and is a difficult-toaccess area due to armed conflict. SR is used for various purposes, including tosupport (i) the Cauca River flow, (ii) dilution of pollutants, and (iii) productionof electrical energy. SL, on the other hand, is located in Valle del Cauca (rightafter the Cauca River has passed through Cali), and is a wetland, decreeda nature reserve since 1978, that varies the distribution of its water mirrorthroughout the year due to aquatic plants. Each of these bodies of water is agood example of an area with a specific context that offers only limited optionswith regard to implementing an effective method to assess their water securitydirectly. It is for this reason that they have been selected for the present analysis.1 Optical remote sensing operates in red, green, blue, near-infrared, mid-infrared, andshortwave infrared wavelengths, while microwave remote sensing operates in microwavewavelengths, with the latter not being affected by atmospheric conditions (i.e. clouds,rain, fog, etc.).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData collection 111To overcome the existing remote-sensing challenges in the UCRB, a simple,yet effective, framework for monitoring water bodies through remote sensingis presented in Figure 5.2. The proposed method uses freely available data onthe Google Earth Engine platform, which allows the researcher to clip outsatellite images of the given area of interest (step 1). The framework’s secondstep involves filtering the data, selecting only cloud-free images and/or thosewith the lowest percentage of clouds over the area of interest. Once data hasbeen filtered out and downloaded, the third step sees the researcher extractradiometric indices and band ratios that help to better highlight water bodies.Several satellite remote-sensing methods, such as image classification, linearunmixing, single-band thresholding, and water indexing, are available for thestudy of water bodies (Du et al., 2014; Ji et al., 2009). The Normalized DifferenceWater Index (NDWI) is one of the most used water indices to detect opensurface water bodies. It was first created by the green (G) and near-infrared(NIR) spectral bands of Landsat TM (Özelkan, 2019), and benefits from thehigh reflectance in NIR of vegetation and soil features (Ko et al., 2015). Othernormalised indices exist to detect water bodies (such as the Modified NDWI);however, their results depend strongly on the colour, content, and depth of thewater body under investigation, varying greatly from one region to anotherand therefore not allowing for a standardised comparison (Fisher et al., 2016).For these and other reasons, the NDWI was used in this study to allow for thegeneric identification of water bodies.With a proper feature extracted, the framework’s fourth step segmentsthe water bodies by three different methods: (i) Otsu’s thresholding methodFigure 5.1 True colour satellite images of two water bodies in the UCRB: (left) SalvajinaReservoir; (right) Sonso Lake. (Credit: Yady Tatiana Solano-Correa).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest112 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security(Yousefi, 2011), (ii) region growing (Fan & Lee, 2015), and (iii) segmentation byapplying the physical meaning of the NDWI (Özelkan, 2019). These methodsare applied to the NDWI images obtained for each water body. The fifthand final step performs a multitemporal statistical analysis of the images tocorrelate different variables such as area, water quality, and climate changevariables. The analysis of these correlations should help decision-makers tobetter manage water bodies (see further explanation below).Characterisation of two inland water bodies in the Upper CaucaRiver BasinBy making use of multitemporal information, it is possible to see howthe water bodies’ behaviour changes over different periods. Figure 5.3,for example, shows analysis of SR and SL over periods of seven and twoFigure 5.2 General block scheme of the proposed methodology for performingmultitemporal analysis of water bodies. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Figure 5.3 Characterisation of two inland water bodies in the UCRB: (a) Salvajina Reservoir;and (b) Sonso Lake: with regard to NDWI index and water body’s area. (Credit: Yady TatianaSolano-Correa).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData collection 113years, respectively. Without the use of remote sensing, it would have beenimpossible to obtain such an analysis, since these areas generally do notuse proper data acquisition protocols to keeps track of variables such asarea/extension, contaminants, precipitation, or temperature, among others.Figure 5.3 shows the correlation between the temporal variable, the NDWI,and area/extension of SR and SL. An inverse correlation is found betweenthese two values in SR (Figure 5.3a). This is because of the reflectance valuesof the water (Özelkan, 2019), which indicates the presence or absence ofsediments and contaminants in the water body, with their proportionincreasing when the water mirror (area) is smaller. A similar phenomenonoccurs at SL (Figure 5.3b), but the inverse correlation is not as strong, perhapsbecause of aquatic plants on the water’s surface (since this is a wetland). Thisinformation, together with meteorological data, can be used by decisionmakers and communities to implement measurements about how to use thewater for human consumption. Understanding if the increase/decrease ofcontaminants is related to climate conditions or human ones is also highlyimportant for water security management.ConclusionInformation from optical remote-sensing experiments such as this can be used(and is used) by communities and decision-makers to improve quality of lifein the studied regions, all while guaranteeing water security. Remote-sensingtechniques inform proactive decisions (e.g. by offering real-time informationon the water bodies’ conditions, area, and water quality) to safeguard watersupplies before a water security risk emerges, rather than forcing locals toreact after an event has occurred. For example, if weather conditions are suchthat a flood might occur, analysing the water body will provide more detailedinformation on this possible event, allowing an informed decision to be madeabout evacuating the area. The opposite is also true: during an extended periodwithout rain, multitemporal information will show when the water levels aredecreasing (by a decrease in area/extension of the water body), signalling theneed to conserve water to reduce the risk of drought. And while the analysiswe have presented demonstrates the success of an optical remote-sensingapproach, which relies on clear atmospheric conditions, similar analysis can,in fact, be provided with microwave remote-sensing techniques, which are notinfluenced by weather.Remote sensing has the advantage of providing a broader view of a systemin its entirety, thus providing complementary information (to in-situ data)for proactive management. Remote-sensing information is often seen as tootechnical, but researchers can easily teach users how to read the derivedinformation (such as multitemporal statistical analysis), thus supporting themto make their own decisions while being proactive about the management ofthe territory. In this way, communities, not just experts, can take control andact when risks arise.Click on the following images to see timelapses of chlorophyll andsegmentation in both water bodies (Figures 5.4–5.7).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest114 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityFigure 5.4 Chlorophyll inSalvajina Reservoir. (Credit:Yady Tatiana Solano-Correa).Figure 5.5 Chlorophyll in Sonso Lake. (Credit: YadyTatiana Solano-Correa).Figure 5.6 Segmentation inSalvajina Reservoir. (Credit:Yady Tatiana Solano-Correa).Figure 5.7 Segmentation in Sonso Lake. (Credit: YadyTatiana Solano-Correa).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData collection 1155.2 INNOVATIVE MOLECULAR MICROBIOLOGY METHOD FOR WATERQUALITY TESTING AND FAECAL POLLUTION SOURCE TRACKING:CASES FROM THE UK AND GLOBALLYRixia Zan and Maria Valasia PeppaThe COVID-19 pandemic has shown how powerful DNA/RNA-based diagnosticscan be for hazard monitoring to protect public health (Diamond et al., 2022).DNA/RNA-based diagnostics, also known as molecular diagnostics, examinesequences within the genetic code that can potentially serve as an indicator ofspecific diseases. Applying molecular microbiology to water quality monitoringcould help with pollution source tracking and public health risk assessment.However, molecular microbiology-based methods usually are too expensive forlow- to lower-middle-income countries. They also require a lot of investmentin laboratory and professional skills. But it should be said that the problem ofaccessible water quality data is not unique to low- and lower-middle-incomecountries: for example, the UK sees high levels of sewage pollution in its riversdue to overflows and a lack of microbial water quality data. This challengehas become a top priority for the Environmental Audit Committee of the UKgovernment (EAC, 2022).Water can be rapidly screened for potentially hazardous microorganismsanywhere in the world, thanks to the development of an innovative andaffordable suitcase laboratory (Acharya et al., 2020; Halla et al., 2022; Hiruyet al., 2022; Pantha et al., 2021). Conventional culture-based methods require18 to 24 hours of incubation to produce results. In addition, they cannot tell ifthe faecal pollution source is from warm-blooded animals or humans. But theinnovative suitcase laboratory, developed by Newcastle University, can obtainresults in just three hours and can also identify specifically human sewage ina water body (Zan et al., 2022) – which is crucial for rapid decision-making.What’s more, it simplifies traditional molecular microbiology methods: whileit’s usually difficult to interpret complicated bio-information, especially fornon-specialists, the suitcase laboratory primarily consists of user-friendly toolsand state-of-the-art handheld devices to facilitate ease of use. Not to mentionthe fact that it’s cost-effective, which is particularly crucial for low- and lowermiddle-income countries, where people still lack access to clean water andsanitation. In short, the suitcase laboratory allows any microbial hazards inwater to be identified quickly, easily, and cheaply (see Figure 5.8).How to assemble the suitcase laboratoryConventional quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) machines forspecific genetic quantification and the next-generation sequencing instrumentsfor comprehensive characterisation of genetic material in water are heavy andexpensive.2 Instead, the suitcase laboratory includes a speaker-sized qPCRinstrument from Quantabio (Beverly, USA) and a pocket-sized sequencing2 qPCR is a molecular microbiology method to detect and measure specific genes.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest116 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitydevice, MinION, from Oxford Nanopore Technologies (Oxford, UK). Aside fromthese two equipment items, it includes all the portable equipment needed forenvironmental DNA extraction from water, quantification, and amplification.In addition, a powerful laptop for sequencing data analysis and interpretation isincluded. All these equipment items readily fit into checkable luggage (Figure 5.9).A suitcase laboratory for sequencing and water chemistry costs about$13 000; adding a qPCR machine to the mix brings the cost to $26 000,according to 2024 prices. Overall, this portable equipment allows for an 87%reduction in weight and an 85% reduction in cost.What’s more, while molecular microbiology is 2.6 times costlier thanconventional microbiology, it provides detailed pollution source identificationand helps with risk assessment and decision-making (Zan et al., 2023). Althoughusing the suitcase laboratory would require some knowledge of molecularmicrobiology, undergraduate students and local researchers can be trained inits application with a one-week training workshop. The main challenge is to getmolecular microbiology consumables supplied to low-resource settings.Case studyIn our recent UK-based study (Zan et al., 2022), we validated a methodologywith portable laboratory equipment items that produced results which closelytallied with those obtained with conventional laboratory equipment items.We were able to identify human host-associated bacteroides in storm draineffluents and the Ouseburn River by using the portable instruments on site(in the back of a van) within three hours of sampling. The comprehensiveFigure 5.8 The latest edition of the suitcase laboratory. (Credit: Livia Douse).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData collection 117Figure 5.9 The process for assembling the suitcase laboratory. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest118 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityphysicochemical and microbial water quality data showed faecal pollutionfrom misconnections in the discharge of a surface water drain. The data alsoshowed how stormwater retention in a pond produced effluent characteristics,like those seen in receiving river water, when compared with the water qualityof discharges from two storm drains (Figure 5.10).Global impactThe innovative suitcase laboratory for molecular microbiology water qualitydiagnostics enables faecal pollution source tracking and quantitative microbialrisk assessment (Halla et al., 2022; Zan et al., 2023). This technology can alsobe applied to identify organisms such as protozoa (giardia and crypto) andantimicrobial resistance traits.The application of the suitcase laboratory does require certain skills. But, as thisvideo shows, we can train lessexperienced local researchersin applying state-of-the-artmicrobiology and related riskassessment methods with thehelp of the suitcase laboratory.Through this hands-on practice,participants learn about theimportance of environmentalmonitoring, and wastewatercollection and treatment.Figure 5.10 Photographs of sampling along the Ouseburn River. (Credit: David Werner).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData collection 119So far, we have used the suitcase laboratory in the UK, Brazil, Thailand,Cambodia, Malaysia, Ethiopia, and Tanzania. Trainees from Thailand, Brazil,and Ethiopia have applied the technology to their research (Figure  5.11).And since we started delivering the water quality workshops in 2021, over150 researchers and water professionals have been trained in how to usethe suitcase laboratory. We have built relationships with universities andinstitutions in Africa, Southeast Asia, and South America. We have also helpedless experienced researchers develop their own microbiology laboratories andhave collected comprehensive water quality data from all over the world. Theseworkshops have allowed us to transfer our skills to others.For example, our trainees from Newcastle University Medicine (NUMed)Malaysia attended a water quality workshop in August 2022. Then, theysuccessfully helped us to deliver hands-on training in Ethiopia and Thailandin 2023. They also independently delivered the training to their own partnerorganisations in Cambodia, Thailand, and Indonesia. The attendees in Ethiopiaare now using the suitcase laboratory to investigate bacterial hazards in theAkaki catchment (Hiruy et al., 2022). Since several of our trainees have nowbecome academics, they can pass on the skills they have gained to others. InThailand, we provided hands-on training to the staff in Kung Karabean BayRoyal Development Study Centre in Chanthaburi province. Ten researchersfrom the study centre attended the practical lab session, while researchers fromThai universities and the Department of Fisheries in Chanthaburi attendedthe discussion session, after which a participant said, ‘we can now betterunderstand how the microorganisms affect the fishery products throughout themolecular microbiology technologies we learnt from this workshop.’ Currently,Figure 5.11 Portable molecular diagnostics for on-site water quality monitoringworkshops: (a) Kality Wastewater Treatment Plant, Addis Abba, Ethiopia; (b and c) KungKrabaen Bay Royal Development Study Centre, Chanthaburi Province, Thailand; and (d)Mamiraua Institute for Sustainable Development, Amazon, Brazil. (Credit: Rixia Zan).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest120 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityNUMed (Malaysia), Addis Ababa Water and Sewage Authority (Ethiopia),King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (Thailand), and FederalUniversity of Minas Gerais (Brazil) are all using the suitcase laboratory. Thisyear, we will deliver more workshops to colleagues from Colombia and Ukraine,increasing our global impact (Figure 5.11).ConclusionWater quality can be assessed via different approaches that are complementaryto each other; we’ve mentioned just two of them in this spotlight.Firstly, technological development makes water monitoring more efficient,allowing for the detection of microbial indicators of faecal contamination andbacteria resistant to antibiotics.We have also, however, highlighted the importance of the social aspect, asdemocratising access to information and knowledge promotes community andparticipatory water quality data management (including collection, processing,and analysis). This helps to strengthen social cohesion and facilitate moreinformed decision-making to promote water security.We also assert that the role of the academic institutions in these case studiesis fundamental. For this reason, continuing to promote universities’ socialfunction, capacity building, and knowledge generation (especially in issuesrelated to water security) is key to incorporating these concerns into politicalagendas and inter-institutional work.Finally, it is essential to empower communities through the development ofvaried methodologies, tools, and socio-technical innovations. Decisions shouldnot just be made by rulers or experts with a top-down approach, wherebycommunities are reduced to an object of study or response variable; even themost vulnerable communities can contribute to follow-up, monitoring, andgenerating new solutions for water security with a bottom-up approach.5.3 EXPLORATORY MIXED METHODS DESIGN IN PRACTICECENTRED RESEARCH: SHOWERING IN CALI, COLOMBIADavid Chaquea-RomeroResidential water demand is connected to various aspects of water utilityoperations, such as pricing strategies, conservation initiatives, and customerengagement programmes. By analysing residential water demand trends,utility companies can implement targeted conservation efforts and incentiviseefficient water use among consumers. Residential water demand researchis mainly rooted in psychological and economic studies into the waterconsumption phenomenon (Darnton et  al., 2011; Shove, 2010, 2012). Thisapproach is grounded in a positivist and causal understanding of householdwater consumption, where people are considered to be rational decisionmakers whose behaviour is based on informed choices (Browne et al., 2015;Shove, 2010; Sofoulis, 2011). As such, domestic water management focuses onproviding knowledge and promoting water and/or pro-environmental values toencourage individuals to choose ‘better’ behaviours (Watson, 2012). This hascreated a top-down dynamic when it comes to determining ‘best practices’ forDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData collection 121water users, where politicians, academics, water utilities, and water expertsdictate how people should utilise water in their homes (Sofoulis, 2011: 805).In contrast, when taken from the sociological perspective of practice theory(PT), visions of residential water demand are derived from the practices carriedout by people in their everyday life (Browne et al., 2015; Rinkinen et al., 2021).Practices are what people actually do – like eating, sleeping, driving, working,or studying. They represent ‘correct’, ‘appropriate’, or ‘acceptable’ ways tobehave under certain circumstances, which are socially accepted and do notneed fully conscious or rational evaluation (Reckwitz, 2002; Shove et  al.,2012). As an outcome of practices, water demand is constantly and activelyreproduced through people’s performances (Rinkinen et al., 2021); therefore,changing current consumption patterns lies in a better understanding of theconfiguration of water use practices (Figure 5.12).Practice-centred research: mixed methodologiesPractice-centred approaches should play a crucial role in informing alternativewater demand management, but they are underrepresented in the currentpolicymaking framework (Hampton & Adams, 2018; Shove, 2010). Whilebehavioural perspectives are predominant in domestic water consumptionresearch and management, the translation of PT into intervention strategies isa work in progress (Kurz et al., 2015: 123).PT is not currently well represented in policymaking, because of the difficultyassociated with characterising water use practices in large populations andscaling up their results (Hampton & Adams, 2018). Qualitative methodsfocusing on a small number of cases have traditionally been used in practicecentred research; quantitative methods, meanwhile, have been sidelined(Gram-Hanssen, 2015; Spaargaren et al., 2016). However, quantitative methodscan be used to address the situated and context-dependent characteristicsand dynamics of practices, since they do not only evidence causality but alsodescribe social phenomena (Browne et al., 2014).Some authors have claimed that quantitative approaches could be mistakenlyapplied in studying practices if they are used in the absence of a qualitativecounterpart (e.g. Schatzki, 2012; Sofoulis, 2011). Consequently, mixed methodshave been applied to characterise use practices (e.g. Eon et al., 2018; GramHanssen et al., 2020; Pullinger et al., 2013; van Tienoven et al., 2017). TheseFigure 5.12 Scheme of the exploratory mixed methods design. Adapted from Plano Clarket al. (2008). (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest122 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitymixed methods have been mainly explanatory, where quantitative data iscollected first and qualitative data is subsequently used to explain the findings(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Here, it is assumed that the researchers arealready very familiar with the object of study.However, in cases like the one presented here, a lack of knowledge aboutwhat showering is (or means), demanded the implementation of an exploratorymixed methods design. We carried out a qualitative stage first to understandwhat made sense for people when they shower (Rǿpke, 2009). This prevented topdown impositions of researchers’ preconceptions that did not necessarily alignwith people’s actual ways of showering. Then, based on qualitative findings,a ‘substantive, relevant, and culturally sensitive’ questionnaire was designed(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018: 86), which was capable of capturing the fuzzycomposition of showering; finally, this was implemented quantitatively so thatits findings could be scaled up to a larger population.Practice-centred research: the case of showering in CaliThe research was conducted in Cali, the third-largest city in Colombia witha population of approximately 2.3 million people, and certainly the mostimportant city in the Pacific region. It is culturally diverse because it hashistorically been a focus of migration from rural areas and other cities of thecountry. The city has the highest urban water demand in the UCRB, and itsresidential water demand is tackled through traditional, punitive economicmeasures and environmental education.The three phases of the applied exploratory mixed methods design tocharacterise showering practice are presented below:• Phase 1: We conducted 91 semi-structured interviews with people from 31households in different parts of Cali, to identify the elements of showeringbased on the classification proposed by Shove et  al. (2012): materials,competences, and meanings (Figure 5.13).3• Phase 2: In the integration stage, the questionnaire was designed to collectdata on the composition of people’s performances in a larger sample, bymeasuring the presence or absence of the elements of the practice.4 Eventhough showering is a ‘habitual’ practice (Shove, 2012), it is not performedin the same way every time: some elements are either integrated or notintegrated in certain performances. Therefore, the measurement wascarried out through four degrees of recurrence: ‘always’, ‘most of thetime’, ‘rarely’, and ‘never’ (Figure 5.14).• Phase 3: In the quantitative stage, we carried out the Domestic WaterUse Practices Survey in a representative sample at the city level of 245households; 597 people participated overall. Subsequent statistical3 Shove et al.’s three elements have been widely applied in empirical studies of practices. 4 Here the concept of measuring does not represent the reduction of the practiceto numerical values. Rather, it is used as ‘the process of linking abstract concepts toempirical indicators’ (Hernández Sampieri et al., 2010: 199).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData collection 123analysis consisted of the application of the k-means clustering method toidentify patterns of response across the survey participants, by groupingcases whose content was as similar as it was different from other groups(Xu & Wunsch, 2009). Clusters or ‘variants’ of showering practice wereidentified based on the elements that people integrate always, most of thetime, rarely, or never in their performances.The variants of showering practice in CaliThe variants were named based on their characteristic elements: ‘restorationshowering’, ‘mixed simple showering’, and ‘simple readiness showering’. Eachof them represents a particular understanding of the ‘appropriate’ way toperform the showering (Figure 5.15).Figure 5.13 The elements of practice. Based on Shove et al. (2012) and Spurling et al.(2013). (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Figure 5.14 Example of the measurement of recurrence, using cold water in showering.(Credit: David Chaquea-Romero).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest124 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityRestoration showeringThis pattern of performance revolves around restoring an individual’s idealphysical and mental state. In this variant, the reasons and expectations of thepractice are complementary. People always carry out the practice because:• they feel cold or hot – and want to refresh themselves;• they feel sweaty or they feel their body or hair is dirty – and want to feelclean;• they feel odourful – and want to smell good;• they feel tired or painful – and want to feel relaxed and energised, or toimprove their mood.The rings of recurrence diagram (RRD)The RRD visualises differences between variants of showering practice.It consists of three rings: outer (representing the recurrence: ‘always’),middle (representing the recurrence: ‘most of the time’), and inner(representing the recurrence: ‘rarely’). The recurrence ‘never’ is notincluded.The RRD also visualises the types of elements in showering practice.It consists of four colours: red represents materials, green representscompetences, blue represents meanings, and orange represents positions(i.e. actions before or after the practice is performed).Participants’ responses are distributed across the diagram in theintersection between a vector (element) and ring (recurrence). Whenthe responses of two or more participants happen in an intersection(e.g. ‘cold water’ and ‘always’), they are added to each other, and thisvalue is represented by the diameter of the circle whose centre is in therespective intersection. Circle size therefore correlates to the number ofcoincidences in participants’ responses.Figure 5.15 The practice of showering represented through an RRD. (Credit: DavidChaquea-Romero).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData collection 125Restoration showering has two faces in this pattern of performance: recoveryand readiness. Recovery is related to performing the practice after activities thatrequire physical activity (sports or household chores). Restoration showering isalso carried out after returning home, and as such relates to feelings of weariness,the sensation of warmth, or ridding oneself of environmental pollution. On theother hand, readiness implies returning the body to a neutral state, in advanceof activities to be carried out in the immediate future: before breakfast, leavinghome, working or studying at home, being visited by someone, or dating at night.It is not surprising that the daily frequency of restoration showering is twicea day, occasionally increasing to three, or decreasing to one (e.g. on weekends).Here, the distinction between body and hair is also crucial, which is reflected inusing different consumables and in rinsing twice or more times. Because of thiscomposition, people who carry out restoration showering frequently considerthe practice to be of long duration.Mixed simple showeringThe mixed simple showering variant is configured on the minimum conditionsthat deem the performance appropriate around three main meanings: comfort,cleanliness, and care. This variant is considered ‘mixed’ because people’sperformances are more flexible in this variant compared with restorationshowering, which means that, depending on the circumstances, they couldadopt a relaxing, smelling good, or caring for the body/hair configuration. Thisvariant is labelled as ‘simple’ because its composing elements are not essentialbut frequent; therefore, the standards of comfort, cleanliness, and care are notas meticulous as in restoration showering. Time spent showering is consideredshort, which could be associated with the fact that this pattern is often carriedout in households with only one bathroom. Long showers are taken rarely,which could be related to the fact that people performing this type of showeringare often in a hurry (e.g. before work on a weekday).Simple readiness showeringWhile mixed simple showering is still strongly tied to comfort, cleanliness, andcare, simple readiness showering is characterised by the position it occupiesin relation to other practices. This pattern of performance is usually a prerequisite for other activities: showering is performed before leaving home, beforeworking or studying at home, and before dating at night. These positions arenot essential, but they are frequently integrated into showering performances.Simple readiness showering could be considered the minimum standard toachieve before leaving home or carrying out practices that are traditionallyassociated with leaving it but are carried out inside (working or studying). Incontrast to mixed simple showering, people who carry out this variant oftenlive in households with two or more bathrooms; nonetheless, the practice isusually performed in the ‘family bathroom’.ConclusionThe variants of showering were consistent with the meanings of showering foundby Hand et al. (2005) and Shove (2003) in their qualitative historical analysisDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest126 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityof the practice, as well as with the variants of showering identified by Pullingeret al. (2013) in their explanatory mixed methods design applied to characterisewater use practices in southern England. This proves that the implementationof an exploratory mixed methods approach is suitable for studying water usepractices and (cautiously) scaling up their results. Methodological designs likethe one outlined above challenge the traditional top-down approach to waterconsumption, by enabling people to speak about what makes sense for them indomestic water use from a bottom-up, culturally sensitive perspective.The implementation of mixed methods – and particularly exploratorydesigns – could also boost the inclusion of practice-centred approaches inthe policymaking arena, since descriptive inferences can be drawn in largerpopulations. This opens up a wider spectrum of intervention possibilities fromwithin practices, rather than from external impositions (Jack, 2013).In the specific case of showering in Cali, the identification of three variantsprovided evidence that materials, competences, and meanings are arranged andbound together through a routinised and daily reproduction, not from people’srational choices (Shove, 2010). Therefore, changes in peoples’ water use cannotonly be achieved through increased water prices, information campaigns, orenvironmental awareness. Research in local communities in Australia (Allon& Sofoulis, 2006; Fam et al., 2015; Fam & Mellick Lopes, 2015) shows thatinterventions centred on practices can be more effective, emerging fromand fitting in current ways of water use. Findings in the presented spotlightcontest the effectiveness of the one-size-fits-all strategies that are traditionallyimplemented in water demand management: such strategies neglect the factthat water is entangled in practices that are internally differentiated (i.e.variants of practice), which must be addressed and targeted from a holisticperspective.To the knowledge of the author, practice-centred approaches are almostentirely unknown in residential water demand research and management at thelocal and national levels, which rely mainly on punitive economic measures,environmental education, or metering improvements. Further involvement ofPT in residential water demand policymaking requires more research into therelationship between water consumption and the constitution of practices –which represents a further avenue to explore and improve for the approachpresented here. Based on this, domestic water consumption could be addressedas a complex social phenomenon, beyond the exclusive engineering, economic,and psychological domains.REFERENCESAcharya K., Blackburn A., Mohammed J., Haile A. T., Hiruy A. M. and Werner D. (2020).Metagenomic water quality monitoring with a portable laboratory. Water Research,184, 116112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116112Allon F. and Sofoulis Z. (2006). Everyday water: cultures in transition. AustralianGeographer, 37(1), 45–55, https://doi.org/10.1080/00049180500511962Browne A., Pullinger M., Medd W. and Anderson B. (2014). Patterns of practice: a reflectionon the development of quantitative/mixed methodologies capturing everyday lifeDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData collection 127related to water consumption in the UK. 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Huggel(eds.), Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, pp. 217–232 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56469-2_15Watson S. (2012). How theories of practice can inform transition to a decarbonisedtransport system. Journal of Transport Geography, 24, 488–496, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.04.002Xu R. and Wunsch D. C. (2009). Clustering. IEEE Press, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,New Jersey, US, https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470382776Yousefi J. (2011). Image Binarization Using Otsu Thresholding Algorithm. University ofGuelph, Ontario, Canada, https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.4758.9284Zan R., Acharya K., Blackburn A., Kilsby C. G. and Werner D. (2022). A mobile laboratoryenables fecal pollution source tracking in catchments using onsite qPCR assays.Water, 14(8), 1224, https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081224Zan R., Blackburn A., Plaimart J., Acharya K., Walsh C., Stirling R., Kilsby C. G. andWerner D. (2023). Environmental DNA clarifies impacts of combined seweroverflows on the bacteriology of an urban river and resulting risks to publichealth. Science of the Total Environment, 889, 164282, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164282Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0131© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Ermias Teferi, Greg O’Donnell and Zulfaqar Sa’adiWith water scarcity and climate change threatening water security in multipleways, accurate information can help us understand risks and formulateresponses. Improved data and understanding are required to ensure thatdecision-making is effective and equitable. In the following case studies, theauthors show how rigorous research methods and appropriate database tools,including the FAIR principles (see Principle 2. Knowledge – Introduction), canbe implemented by active players to tackle water management challenges inEthiopia’s Abbay Basin and the Johor River Basin in Malaysia.6.1 CAMELS-ETH EXPLORER: HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL ANDGEOSPATIAL INTERACTIVE DATABASE TO SUPPORT WATERRESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIAErmias Teferi and Greg O’DonnellEthiopia strives to use its available water resources efficiently, equitably, andoptimally, to support socio-economic development on a sustainable basis(MoWIE, 2013). This requires a solid knowledge base for better decisionmaking. However, the governance of hydrometric data has historically beenfragmented across agencies, with a lack of coordination impeding data sharing.Relevant stakeholders, including national ministries, local authorities, academicinstitutions, and non-governmental organisations, have limited capacityto access and utilise the hydrometric data that underpins a diverse range ofpractical and research activities. To achieve national goals when it comes towater resource management, stakeholders need transparent access to dataChapter 6DatabasesDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest132 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityand visualisation tools that capture key hydrometeorological and geospatialcharacteristics of river catchments.To address this issue, the CAMELSEth Explorer (catchment attributes andmeteorology for large-sample studies)has been established as a consolidated,national-level repository. This video offersa short virtual tour of the CAMELS-EthExplorer, a dynamic web applicationthrough which the unified CAMELS-Ethdatabase can be accessed.Compilation of the CAMELS-Eth databaseCAMELS-Eth draws together in-situ and remotely sensed hydrometeorologicaland geospatial datasets to provide a unified database that will enable betterwater resource management. Key activities performed include (Figure 6.1):• Bringing together historical flow datasets and performing rigorous qualitycontrol;• Calculating hydrologic metrics that characterise the dynamic behaviourof streamflow;• Processing state-of-the-art remotely sensed rainfall, temperature, andevaporation datasets to augment the spatially limited in-situ monitoringnetwork;• Characterising topography, climate, soils, geology, hydrogeology, landcover, and anthropogenic influences;Figure 6.1 Workflow for the compilation of CAMELS-Eth. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDatabases 133• Investigating the hydrological fluxes into and out of the catchment tosupport water resource development and management;• Producing Ethiopia’s first map-based user interface for hydrometric data(Figure 6.2).Currently, CAMELS-Eth consists of datasets for 122 gauged catchmentsin the Abbay River Basin, which contributes about 50% of the country’s totalannual surface runoff.Significance of CAMELS-Eth• Better data administration and governance: The CAMELS-Eth Exploreris a dynamic web application that provides a unifying data portal toenable better data administration and governance. The CAMELS-EthExplorer has also partnered with various academic institutes, includingMekdelamba University, Debre Birhan University, Debre Tabor University,and Addis Ababa University, empowering Ethiopian researchers toexplore future water resource sustainability.• Comparative assessments: The 122 catchments compiled under theCAMELS-Eth initiative exhibit considerable diversity in geophysicaland hydrometeorological attributes. This variability, combined withthe large number of catchments, makes the CAMELS-Eth datasetideal for comparative assessments. For example, the classification andregionalisation of catchments can aid in the transfer of hydrologicalknowledge to catchments that have not been monitored.• Local versus global datasets: Our primary goal in developing CAMELSEth was to use the best available datasets. Often local datasets providethe highest-quality information, but in their absence global datasetshave been employed. By connecting international scientists to detailed,Figure 6.2 CAMELS-Eth Explorer web interface. (Credit: Ermias Teferi).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest134 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityEthiopia-specific data, CAMELS-Eth Explorer helps overcome knowledgebarriers and increases utilisation of valuable in-country insights, whichexternal researchers might otherwise struggle to find and interpret.• Human activity on river flow: CAMELS-Eth Explorer includes metricson the extent of human activities relating to river flow and groundwater.Here, we have included information regarding river regulation, extent ofurbanisation or man-made impervious surface, and population density.Knowledge of human activity is a prerequisite in understanding thepartitioning of rainfall into evaporation, soil moisture, and runoff –which in turn allows us to quantify impacts on the dynamics of river flowand ecosystems. Additionally, this information can aid in the selection ofrelatively undisturbed ‘benchmark catchments’, suitable for the study ofclimatic variability and change.• Climate variability: The data compiled in the CAMELS initiative has greatpotential to be utilised for analysing climate variability across differentwatersheds. It presents an important opportunity to comprehensively assessclimate variability impacts on water in Ethiopia. The dataset facilitatesrobust hydro-climatic insights not possible from individual case studies.ConclusionLooking ahead, we envision many applications of the CAMELS-Eth database,including in water resource models to assess potential water resourcedevelopment options; in studies of droughts, floods, and runoff generation; inplanning in ungauged basins; and in assessments of environmental flows inrelation to hydrologic alteration. CAMELS-Eth will continue to evolve as thesenew applications are developed and as users feed back as to what they need formore comprehensive hydrological systems analyses.This initial work has focused on Ethiopia’s Abbay River Basin, which is thecountry’s most socially and economically vital basin, providing around 50% ofEthiopia’s total annual surface runoff. We are currently preparing to expand toother river basins across Ethiopia, including the Awash Basin, where the capitalcity, Addis Ababa, is situated, and the Central Rift Valley River Basin, whichis currently undergoing agricultural expansion informed by the CAMELS-Ethdatabase and in line with the FAIR principles. We hope that the developmentof the first CAMELS dataset for Africa will provide a template for futureendeavours in data-sparse regions that are experiencing water managementchallenges.6.2 ENHANCING CLIMATE-BASED INFORMATION FOR JOHOR RIVERBASIN, MALAYSIA: ACCESSING DATA AND OVERCOMING BARRIERSZulfaqar Sa’adiWater management in the Johor River Basin (JRB), Malaysia, faces multifacetedchallenges that require the integration of diverse global open-source climatedatasets (Giuliani et  al., 2017). However, entrenched conventional practicesoften hinder progress, highlighting the pressing need for a transformativeDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDatabases 135shift towards accessible global open-source data to overcome prevailingbarriers (Mondejar et al., 2021). Government practitioners traditionally rely onconventional meteorological data, sourced from ground-based weather stationsnationwide, to manage climate-based water resources. This data, encompassingrainfall, temperature, humidity, wind speed, and so forth, has been instrumentalin analysing diverse climatic trends and their impacts on water resources (Funget al., 2022; Kang Ng et al., 2020; Ng et al., 2022).This ground-based data, however, has limitations when it comes to spatialcoverage, making it inadequate for the capture of microclimatic variations,which then leads to uncertainties around localised weather patterns and theirwater resource impacts. This data lacks consistency and homogeneity acrossstations due to variations in instrumentation, observation practices, and dataquality control. Inhomogeneity and persistent missing data in meteorologicaldatasets significantly impact climate assessments, as evidenced by the feasibilityof only 24 out of 51 ground-based rainfall stations for extreme rainfall anddrought assessments in the JRB (Sa’adi et al., 2022, 2023a). Addressing missingdata necessitates a rigorous data quality and imputation process (Sa’adi et al.,2023b). For one thing, historical data may not align with the dynamics ofclimate change, often lacking the necessary long-term granularity to allowresearchers to discern between the effects of short-term climate variability andlong-term climate change (Ghil & Lucarini, 2020). Therefore, relying solelyon conventional data sources limits our capacity to anticipate and respondto emerging climate change challenges, as well as hindering a comprehensiveunderstanding of the complex relationships between climate, water resources,and human activities.The benefits of global open-source climate datasetsBy contrast, global open-source climate datasets combine ground-basedobservations, satellite measurements, and reanalysis models to achievecomprehensive coverage of the Earth’s surface, including remote areas (Ayoubet al., 2020). Global open-source climate datasets offer comprehensive, freelyaccessible collections of climate-related information, encompassing variablessuch as temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed, atmospheric pressure,and sea surface temperature across diverse spatial and temporal scales (Sunet al., 2018). For instance, Figure 6.3 demonstrates the spatial advantages offeredby Climate Hazards Group Infrared Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS)gridded rainfall datasets (CHIRPS, n.d.) compared with solely ground-basedstation datasets when assessing extreme rainfall in the JRB.In the top array of Figure 6.3, extreme rainfall maps were created usingArcGIS by interpolating in-situ rainfall datasets from 24 stations situatedwithin and in proximity to the JRB. The lower array of Figure 6.3 showcasesextreme rainfall maps generated within the R environment, utilising 109grid points extracted from CHIRPS data. This comparison reveals CHIRPS’superiority when it comes to capturing rainfall conditions, which could beattributed to its capacity to offer comprehensive and spatially contiguousassessment. This capability allows for a more accurate depiction of rainfallDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest136 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityacross wider geographic areas, surpassing the limitations associated withstation data, which often suffers from restricted coverage and spatialresolution. So, compared with others, CHIRPS offers distinct advantages forsmall-scale JRB basin rainfall assessment. With a spatial resolution of 0.05°and a historical record spanning over 42 years (since 1981), CHIRPS has beenvalidated to adeptly capture variations in rainfall intensity and distributionin the JRB (Sa’adi et  al., 2023c). Incorporating both satellite and groundbased station data ensures reliability and consistency with near-real-timeupdates, essential for assessing historical trends and climate change impacts.Additionally, CHIRPS can fill data gaps in remote or data-sparse regions inthe JRB, enhancing its utility for assessing basins with limited ground-basedobservations.A wide array of global open-source climate datasets and simulation modelsis available, with the majority of users emanating from academic spheresrather than government agencies. There has been a move towards utilisingthe CHIRPS dataset in a number of recent academic climate assessments fordrought (Sa’adi et al., 2023c) and rainfall projection (Sa’adi et al., 2024) in theJRB. Ayoub et al. (2020) evaluated CHIRPS data in Malaysia and found that,despite some slight overestimations, it effectively captured occurrences of highrainfall intensity. Additionally, Hashim et al. (2023) employed another freelyavailable precipitation and evapotranspiration dataset to analyse changes inFigure 6.3 Comparison between extreme rainfall (number of heavy rainy days, R10;number of very heavy rainy days, R20; and number of extremely heavy rainy days, R25)assessments based on station data (Sa’adi et al., 2022) (top array) and CHIRPS data (Sa’adiet al., 2023c) (bottom array). Symbols ‘+’ and ‘−’ indicate positive and negative trends,respectively, under a statistical test at 95% significant level. (Credit: Zulfaqar Sa’adi).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDatabases 137JRB water yield.1 Furthermore, Tan et al. (2021) utilised existing high-resolutionglobal climate models to evaluate hydro-climatic change projections in the JRB(HRCM, n.d.). On a broader scale, Noor et al. (2021) compared the rainfallintensity estimations from four remotely sensed products from NASA andJAXA space agencies with those obtained using solely ground-based datasets at80 stations in Peninsular Malaysia.2 The authors concluded that the remotelysensed products required some correcting, due to biases relating to topography,cloud cover, and other climatic factors, but once these corrections had beenmade, one of the four products – JAXA’s global product – significantly improvedrainfall intensity estimations, making it suitable for hydrological analysis inregions without accessible in-situ rainfall data.These examples demonstrate the extensive utilisation and validation of globaldatasets across Malaysian academia, benefiting from rigorous quality control andassimilation techniques that ensure reliability and enhance the robustness andconsistency of climate analyses. Moreover, these datasets offer finer temporalresolution through reanalysis models and satellite observations, facilitating thedetection and analysis of rapid climate variations and trends over shorter timescales. While conventional ground-based meteorological data is vital for localscale analyses and forecasting, global open-source climate datasets offer a morecomprehensive, consistent, continuous, and broader perspective on the Earth’sclimate system, enhancing our understanding of global climate variability andchange. Therefore, both localised and global analysis should be conducted ina complementary manner, supplementing each other’s temporal and spatialscales, especially in the case of ground-data scarcity.Challenges to the adoption of global open-source climate datasetsDespite the wealth of information and accompanying benefits they offer interms of policy- and decision-making, several factors contribute to the limiteduptake of global open-source climate datasets by government entities. Theseinclude:(1) Government agencies may lack awareness or familiarity with theexistence and availability of global open-source climate datasets, asthey often rely on traditional data sources from national meteorologicalagencies, potentially leading to a reluctance to explore alternativedatasets.(2) Reliability, consistency, and regulatory compliance in data sourcingis a priority for policy formulation and implementation. Even thoughglobal open-source climate datasets already undergo quality control,1 Between 1997 and 2015, the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission provided freelyavailable critical precipitation measurements in tropical and subtropical regions(NASA, n.d.). 2 (i) JAXA’s global products for satellite mapping in near real time (GSMAP, n.d.); (ii)with some generated after gauge calibration; (iii) precipitation estimation from remotelysensed information using artificial neural networks (CHRS, n.d.); (iv) NASA’s andJAXA’s rainfall estimates from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest138 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitysome concerns may arise regarding data accuracy, consistency, andadherence to regulatory standards compared with traditional sources.(3) There are technical and resource-related challenges in accessing,processing, and interpreting large-scale global open-source climatedatasets.(4) Integrating these datasets into existing systems and workflows maynecessitate specialised expertise, infrastructure upgrades, and additionalresource allocation, posing barriers to adoption and uptake.(5) Specific data requirements and mandates may not be fully met by existingglobal open-source climate datasets, necessitating collaboration andcustomisation efforts for applications such as disaster risk management,infrastructure planning, and policy development.So, wider adoption of global open-source climate datasets in governmentaldecision-making processes could be supported by greater collaboration betweenacademic researchers and government agencies, among other things. Thetransition to global open-source climate data could involve initiatives to raiseawareness, provide training and technical support, improve data accessibilityand usability, and establish partnerships for co-development and customisationof datasets to meet specific governmental needs. Ensuring compatibility andinteroperability between global open-source climate data and existing systemsis vital for seamless integration into decision-making processes. Ultimately,the wealth of information contained in global open-source climate datasetshas the potential to enhance evidence-based policymaking, improve resilienceto climate change, and promote sustainable development at local, national,and global scales. By addressing these barriers to adoption, we can effectivelyunlock the potential of global open-source climate data for informed decisionmaking and climate resilience.ConclusionGlobal open-source climate datasets are invaluable resources for researchers,policymakers, and practitioners involved in climate-related studies andapplications. They facilitate the analysis of past climate conditions, themonitoring of ongoing climate trends and variability, and the developmentof climate projections and scenarios for future climate change assessments.Additionally, these datasets support climate impact assessments, adaptationplanning, and decision-making processes in sectors such as agriculture, waterresources management, energy, and infrastructure development. Overall, globalopen-source climate datasets play a crucial role in advancing our understandingof the Earth’s climate system, fostering collaboration and innovation in climateresearch and supporting efforts to address the challenges posed by climate changeon a global scale. In conclusion, while traditional in-situ data sources continueto play a vital role in climate-based water management, the integration of globaland gridded datasets offers significant opportunities to enhance decisionmaking and improve resilience to climate variability and change in areas likethe JRB, especially when these regions lack in-situ data. By embracing diversedatasets and leveraging advanced technologies, practitioners can gain deeperDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDatabases 139insights into the complex dynamics of the climate–water system and developmore effective strategies for sustainable water management in the region.REFERENCESAyoub A. B., Tangang F., Juneng L., Tan M. L. and Chung J. X. (2020). Evaluation ofgridded precipitation datasets in Malaysia. Remote Sensing, 12(04), 613, https://doi.org/10.3390/RS12040613Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing (CHRS) (n.d.). Data Portal. https://chrsdata.eng.uci.edu/ (accessed 12 April 2024)Climate Hazards Group Infrared Precipitation with Station Data (CHIRPS) (n.d.).CHIRPS: Rainfall Estimates From Rain Gauge and Satellite Observations. ClimateHazards Center, UC Santa Barbara. https://www.chc.ucsb.edu/data/chirps(accessed 12 April 2024).Fung K. F., Chew K. S., Huang Y. F., Ahmed A. N., Teo F. Y., Ng J. L. and Elshafie A.(2022). Evaluation of spatial interpolation methods and spatiotemporal modelingof rainfall distribution in Peninsular Malaysia. Ain Shams Engineering Journal,13(02), 101571, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ASEJ.2021.09.001Ghil M. and Lucarini V. (2020). The physics of climate variability and climatechange. Reviews of Modern Physics, 92, 35002, https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.92.035002Giuliani G., Nativi S., Obregon A., Beniston M. and Lehmann A. (2017). Spatiallyenabling the Global Framework for Climate Services: reviewing geospatialsolutions to efficiently share and integrate climate data & information. ClimateServices, 8, 44–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CLISER.2017.08.003Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation (GSMAP) (n.d.). Jaxa Global Rainfall Watch.https://sharaku.eorc.jaxa.jp/GSMaP/ (accessed 12 April 2024)Hashim M., Baiya B., Mahmud M. R., Sani D. A., Chindo M. M., Leong T. M. and PourA. B. (2023). Analysis of water yield changes in the Johor river basin, PeninsularMalaysia using remote sensing satellite imagery. Remote Sensing, 15(13), 3432,https://doi.org/10.3390/RS15133432High Resolution Climate Modelling group (HRCM) (n.d.). High Resolution ModelIntercomparison Project (HighResMIP). https://hrcm.ceda.ac.uk/research/cmip6-highresmip/ (accessed 12 April 2024).Kang Ng C., Lin Ng J., Feng Huang Y., Xun Tan Y. and Mirzaei M. (2020). Tropicalrainfall trend and stationarity analysis. Water Supply, 20(07), 2471–2483, https://doi.org/10.2166/WS.2020.143Ministry of Water, Irrigation & Energy (MoWIE) (2013). Ethiopia’s Climate-ResilientGreen Economy – Climate Resilience Strategy: Water and Energy. Government ofEthiopia. https://www.mofed.gov.et/media/filer_public/05/cf/05cf1525-f484-4ff2-93dc-9ba0b8b7e060/water-and-energy_cr.pdf (accessed 12 April 2024)Mondejar M. E., Avtar R., Diaz H. L. B., Dubey R. K., Esteban J., Gómez-Morales A.,Hallam B., Mbungu N. T., Okolo C. C., Prasad K. A., She Q. and Garcia-Segura S.(2021). Digitalization to achieve sustainable development goals: steps towards aSmart Green Planet. Science of The Total Environment, 794, 148539, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2021.148539NASA (n.d.). The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission. https://gpm.nasa.gov/missions/trmm (accessed 12 April 2024)Ng C. Y., Jaafar W. Z. W., Mei Y., Othman F., Lai S. H. and Liew J. (2022). Assessing thechanges of precipitation extremes in Peninsular Malaysia. International Journal ofClimatology, 42(15), 7914–7937, https://doi.org/10.1002/JOC.7684Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest140 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityNoor M., Ismail T., Shahid S., Asaduzzaman M. and Dewan A. (2021). Evaluatingintensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves of satellite-based precipitationdatasets in Peninsular Malaysia. Atmospheric Research, 248, 105203, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ATMOSRES.2020.105203Sa’adi Z., Yusop Z. and Alias N. E. (2022). Inter-comparison on the suitability of rainbased meteorological drought in Johor River Basin, Malaysia. KSCE Journal ofCivil Engineering, 26, 2519–2537, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-022-1481-7Sa’adi Z., Yusop Z. and Alias N. E. (2023a). Long-term homogeneity and trend analysisof seasonality and extreme rainfall under the influence of climate change in JohorRiver Basin, Malaysia. Natural Hazards, 117, 1813–1845, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-05930-1Sa’adi Z., Yusop Z., Alias N. E., Chow M. F., Muhammad M. K. I., Ramli M. W. A.,Iqbal Z., Shiru M. S., Rohmat F. I. W., Mohamad N. A. and Ahmad M. F. (2023b).Evaluating imputation methods for rainfall data under high variability in JohorRiver Basin, Malaysia. Applied Computing and Geosciences, 20, 100145, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ACAGS.2023.100145Sa’adi Z., Yusop Z., Alias N. E., Shiru M. S., Muhammad M. K. I. and Ramli M. W. A.(2023c). Application of CHIRPS dataset in the selection of rain-based indicesfor drought assessments in Johor River Basin, Malaysia. Science of The TotalEnvironment, 892, 164471, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2023.164471Sa’adi Z., Alias N. E., Yusop Z., Iqbal Z., Houmsi M. R., Houmsi L. N., Ramli M. W. A.and Muhammad M. K. I. (2024). Application of relative importance metrics forCMIP6 models selection in projecting basin-scale rainfall over Johor River Basin,Malaysia. Science of The Total Environment, 912, 169187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169187Sun Q., Miao C., Duan Q., Ashouri H., Sorooshian S. and Hsu K.-L. (2018). A reviewof global precipitation data sets: data sources, estimation, and intercomparisons.Reviews of Geophysics, 56(1), 79–107, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017RG000574Tan M. L., Liang J., Hawcroft M., Haywood J. M., Zhang F., Rainis R. and Ismail W. R.(2021). Resolution dependence of regional hydro-climatic projection: a case-studyfor the Johor River Basin, Malaysia. Water, 13(22), 3158, https://doi.org/10.3390/W13223158Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0141© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Dinesh Kumar and Wegayehu AsfawData is key to informing effective decision-making, institutional responses,and governance, particularly when informed governance supports futuredevelopment while also reducing poverty and vulnerability. The rivers that runthrough both Delhi, India and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (where these case studiesare situated) cross key boundaries in a complex federal state, meaning it isoften unclear who should shoulder responsibility for tackling water challengesand management. In the following case studies, the authors present knowledgethat is generated via data model approaches, leveraging advanced technologyorientated towards better informed policy decision-making.7.1 UNDERSTANDING WATER SECURITY IN NCT DELHI, INDIA: USINGQUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE MODELLINGDinesh KumarThe National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, the national capital of India,is at the forefront of grappling with the complex challenges of water security,as shown and detailed in Figure 7.1 (Jalsuraksha, n.d.). The city’s rapidurbanisation, together with its ever-growing population and the impacts ofclimate change, has led to a pressing need for sustainable water managementstrategies. To address these challenges, a blend of qualitative and quantitativemodelling approaches is being employed to assess and manage Delhi’s waterresources effectively (Bhave et al., 2018). These approaches not only providea comprehensive understanding of the current water system but also offerinsights into the potential impacts of various management strategies underdifferent future scenarios (Kumar et al., 2022; Walsh et al., 2013).Chapter 7Data modellingDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest142 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityFigure 7.1 The study area of the NCT of Delhi: (a) location map of the NCT of Delhi; (b) water supply for the NCT of Delhi. (Credit: DineshKumar).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData modelling 143Qualitative modelling in water resource management involves the useof conceptual frameworks and stakeholder engagement to understand thedynamics of the water system. This approach emphasises the importance ofsocial, economic, and institutional factors in shaping water managementpractices. Indeed, stakeholder engagement has been a crucial aspect ofqualitative modelling in Delhi, with the involvement of government agencies,non-governmental organisations (NGOs), academic institutions, and communitygroups (Loucks & van Beek, 2017). Through semi-structured interviews,workshops, and meetings, diverse perspectives and local knowledge areintegrated into the water management framework, ensuring that the strategiesdeveloped are contextually relevant and socially acceptable. Additionally,qualitative modelling helps to identify key drivers of water demand and supply,as well as potential conflicts and synergies between different water uses andusers.Further quantitative modelling provides a more technical and data-drivenapproach to water resource management. The Water Evaluation and Planning(WEAP) model is one such tool that has been extensively used in Delhi tosimulate the city’s water system quantitatively. The WEAP model operates onthe principle of water balance equations and incorporates various componentsof the water system, including supply sources, demand sites, and wastewatertreatment plants. By inputting data on population growth, climate changeprojections, and socio-economic development, the model can predict the futureavailability of and demand for water under different scenarios. This allowspolicymakers and water managers to assess the potential impacts of variousmanagement options, such as the construction of new water treatment plants,implementation of water conservation measures, and changes in water pricingpolicies (Kwakkel & Haasnoot, 2019).The integration of qualitative and quantitative modelling approaches(Bhave et  al., 2020) allows us to gain a holistic understanding of Delhi’swater system. For instance, the qualitative insights gathered from stakeholderengagement can feed into the construction of the water system model and thedevelopment of scenarios and management options in th quantitative WEAPmodel. Conversely, the results from the WEAP model can be used to facilitatediscussions among stakeholders, helping to identify priorities and buildconsensus on water management strategies. This iterative process ensures thatthe modelling outcomes are not only scientifically robust but also aligned withthe social and economic realities of the city (Indian National Trust for Art andCultural Heritage, 2017).So, the combination of qualitative and quantitative modelling in waterresource management offers a comprehensive and adaptable framework foraddressing the complex challenges faced by Delhi. By leveraging the strengthsof both approaches, policymakers and water managers can develop andimplement strategies that are both effective and sustainable (Bhave et al., 2022).This integrated approach is crucial for ensuring the long-term availability ofwater resources in Delhi, thereby promoting the well-being of people and thesustainable development of the city.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest144 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityMethodologyThe methodology employed in this study uses a blend of qualitative andquantitative approaches to assess Delhi’s water supply and explore variouswater management scenarios. The qualitative aspect involves stakeholderengagement and conceptual framework development, while the quantitativeaspect utilises the WEAP model for simulation. The methodology comprisesthe following steps:(1) Stakeholder engagement and data collection: Engage with keystakeholders including the Delhi Jal Board (DJB), the NationalMission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), NGOs, academic institutions, andcommunity groups to gather relevant data and insights. Develop acomprehensive dashboard to provide public access to datasets relatedto urban water security in Delhi, facilitating stakeholder participationand data transparency.(2) Qualitative modelling and scenario development: Conduct workshopsand meetings with stakeholders to identify key drivers of water demandand supply, plus potential conflicts and synergies between differentwater uses and users. Develop conceptual frameworks to understandthe social, economic, and institutional dynamics of Delhi’s watersystem. Formulate scenarios based on qualitative insights, reflectingdifferent plausible futures such as high socio-economic growth andclimate change impacts.(3) WEAP model development and setup: Create a conceptual WEAPmodel to simulate the business-as-usual scenario of Delhi’s water system,incorporating data on water supply, sewage generation, and wastewatertreatment. Set up the Delhi WEAP model with 11 water supply sources,demand sites, and wastewater treatment plants, using transmissionlinks and return flows to represent the water flow dynamics.(4) Baseline establishment and water demand calculation: Establish thebaseline water system in WEAP with a simulation period from 2021to 2050, using 2020 as the current year. Define water supply zones,population growth rates, and per capita water use rates. Calculate waterdemand for each site using the formula: total demand = total activitylevel x water use rate, accounting for transmission losses of 15–30% asper Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (2017) data.(5) Quantitative scenario analysis: Integrate the qualitative scenarios intothe WEAP model for quantitative simulation. Assess the efficiencyof various water management strategies under different scenarios,including demand management, infrastructure improvements, andpolicy interventions.(6) Iterative refinement and stakeholder feedback: Use the results from theWEAP model to facilitate discussions among stakeholders, refining thescenarios and management strategies based on feedback. Iterate themodelling process to ensure alignment with the social and economicrealities of Delhi, promoting a collaborative approach to water resourcemanagement.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData modelling 145This methodology provides a structured framework for evaluating Delhi’swater supply system and exploring effective water management options toenhance urban water security.Storyline-based scenariosThe storyline-based scenarios are explained below, and the identified watermanagement options (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage,2017) are outlined in Table 7.1.(1) Scenario 1 – Business as usual: In this scenario, Delhi continues torely on its existing water treatment plants and demand sites, based onthe city’s current water supply and consumption patterns. This scenarioserves as a baseline, illustrating a future where no significant changesare made to the water management system. But with the populationprojected to grow and climate challenges to persist, this path highlightsthe potential risks of sticking to the status quo, emphasising the need forproactive measures to ensure a sustainable water future.Table 7.1 Water Management Options (WMOs). (Credit: Dinesh Kumar).WMONo.Type ofInterventionRelevant/AlignedScenariosWMO Description Assumptions ofModel1 SupplyenhancementScenario 3 Increase in supply afterthe construction of a dam(Renuka Dam) in 2030,providing 275 MGD ofwater as per the 1994Upper Yamuna RiverBoard agreement.Will reduceurban waterdemand by 275MGD by 2050.2 Scenarios3 & 4Groundwater rechargingand rejuvenation throughrehabilitating urban lakesby 2050.Will reduce 50%of urban waterdemand by 2050.3 DemandmanagementScenario 4 By 2050, increasewastewater reuse fornon-drinking purposesby 50% throughdecentralised wastewatertreatment, communityinvolvement, and shiftingpublic perception.Will reduce 50%of urban waterdemand by 2050.4 Scenario 2 Better water pricing. Will reduce 40%of urban waterdemand by 2050.5 Scenario2 & 4Reduction of non-revenuewater from 40% to 15%.Will reduce 30%of urban waterdemand by 2050.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest146 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security(2) Scenario 2 – Intensification in urbanisation: By 2030, Delhi’s allure as aneconomic and political hub is expected to have intensified, drawing peoplefrom rural areas of neighbouring states – indeed, the city’s populationcould burgeon at a rate of 3% annually, putting additional pressure onthe city’s water resources. This scenario, then, explores the challengesof managing water demand in a rapidly urbanising environment andunderscores the importance of infrastructure development and efficientwater use practices to cater to the growing populace.(3) Scenario 3 – Supply-side management: The completion of the RenukaDam in 2030 is expected to mark a turning point for Delhi’s water supply.Providing an additional 275 million gallons per day (MGD), the damshould alleviate some of the city’s water scarcity issues. This scenarioalso envisions increased utilisation of groundwater resources, offeringa glimpse into a future where enhanced infrastructure and diversifiedwater sources play a pivotal role in meeting the city’s water needs.(4) Scenario 4 – Water-sensitive planning: In this scenario, Delhi hastransformed into a water-sensitive city by 2050, where wastewater reusehas surged by 50% due to decentralised treatment systems and activecommunity acceptance. Thanks to a shift in public perception, localshave embraced the use of treated wastewater for non-drinking purposes,significantly reducing pollution in the Yamuna River and lessening thedependence on external water sources. This scenario paints a picture of asustainable and resilient urban water system driven by innovative practicesand a collective commitment to preserving precious water resources.7.2 RESULTSStakeholder engagementThe development of the model and the formulation of scenarios were informed byextensive engagement with various stakeholders, including government agencies,water utilities, NGOs, academic institutions, and community groups (Figures7.2 and 7.3). The DJB and the NMCG were key collaborators in the project,providing valuable data and insights into the city’s water supply and wastewatermanagement. Workshops and meetings were organised to gather input fromthese and other stakeholders, ensuring that the model accurately represented thecurrent water system and future challenges. Furthermore, the online dashboard(Jalsuraksha, n.d.) established as part of the project facilitated ongoingstakeholder involvement by providing a platform for sharing information andupdates related to Delhi’s water security. This allowed for continuous feedbackand refinement of the model based on real-time data and changing conditions.Overall, the modelling process was characterised by a high level of stakeholderparticipation, which was essential for capturing the complexities of Delhi’s watersystem and developing realistic and effective management scenarios.WEAP model development based on stakeholder engagementDeveloping the WEAP model (Figure 7.4) served as a catalyst for consolidatingdatasets and stakeholder knowledge in the assessment of Delhi’s WMOs. ThisDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData modelling 147Figure 7.2 Photograph of stakeholders at the initial stakeholder meeting, 13 March 2020.(Credit: Dinesh Kumar).Figure 7.3 Photograph of stakeholders at stakeholder meeting, 26 August 2022. (Credit:Dinesh Kumar).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest148 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityFigure 7.4 (a) The WEAP model of the Yamuna basin for initial stakeholder engagement; (b) the Jalsuraksha portal of the NCT of Delhi waterand wastewater system; and (c) WEAP model of the NCT of Delhi. (Credit: Dinesh Kumar).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData modelling 149was facilitated through the establishment of a dashboard or web portal thatacted as a one-stop platform for sharing and accessing information related tourban water security in Delhi. Collaboration between the DJB, the NMCG, andother stakeholders was central to this effort. The dashboard provided a userfriendly interface for visualising and analysing data on water supply, sewagegeneration, and wastewater treatment, enabling a more integrated approach tounderstanding and managing the city’s water resources. The consolidation ofdatasets through the dashboard then helped us to represent Delhi’s water systemmore comprehensively and accurately in the WEAP model. It allowed for rapidupdates and adjustments to the model based on the latest information, ensuringthat the scenarios and management strategies we developed were grounded incurrent realities.Furthermore, the dashboard promoted knowledge sharing and collaborationamong stakeholders. It provided a platform for exchanging ideas, discussingchallenges, and exploring solutions aimed at improving water management inDelhi. By bringing together diverse perspectives and expertise, the dashboardenhanced our collective understanding of the city’s water issues and fostereda more collaborative approach to addressing them. Overall, the WEAP modeland the associated dashboard served as an impetus for consolidating datasets,knowledge, and collaboration, ultimately contributing to more informed andeffective water management in Delhi.Storyline-based scenario analysisThe results of the Delhi WEAP model suggest that a multifaceted approachis essential for a robust and effective solution to the challenges facing Delhi’swater system. This approach should encompass demand management strategies,infrastructure enhancements, and policy interventions. One key elementof this strategy is the construction of upstream dams (WMO-1, as shown inFigure 7.5): this will increase the reliability of the water supply by providingadditional storage capacity and regulating the flow of water during periodsof scarcity. However, demand management strategies need to be integratedto enhance the system’s robustness further. Reducing non-revenue water(WMO-5) is one such strategy. By addressing leaks, illegal connections, andmetering inaccuracies, this measure can decrease water losses and improvethe efficiency of the water distribution system. Similarly, implementing waterpricing mechanisms (WMO-4) is another crucial demand management strategy.By setting appropriate price signals, water pricing can incentivise conservationand reduce excessive consumption. This approach not only promotes moresustainable water use but also generates revenue that can be reinvested in thewater system’s infrastructure and maintenance.In conclusion, the Delhi WEAP model underscores the importance ofa comprehensive strategy that combines infrastructure development withdemand management and policy measures. By adopting such an approach,Delhi can move towards a more sustainable and resilient water system thatmeets the needs of its growing population while safeguarding its precious waterresources.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest150 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityConclusionThe findings from this study, underpinned by the WEAP model, highlightthe growing challenge of meeting Delhi’s water demand amid an expandingpopulation and limited water resources. The construction of the Renuka Damhas been identified as a pivotal solution for mitigating water scarcity from 2025 to2035, demonstrating the model’s utility in strategic planning for water resourcemanagement. Additionally, the stakeholder engagement research emphasisesthe significance of fostering public awareness about water conservationpractices, such as reuse and recycling, to cultivate sustainable water usagebehaviours. The study reveals the critical role of policy interventions in thesuccessful implementation of these strategies; it also shows that collaborativeefforts among government agencies, private sector entities, and civil societyorganisations are imperative for driving change and ensuring the long-termsustainability of Delhi’s water system.In conclusion, the WEAP model has provided valuable insights into Delhi’swater challenges through a comprehensive approach that combines supply-sideand demand-side management, supported by robust policy frameworks.11 With thanks to Ajay Bhave, Asvhin Gosain, Dhanya C.T., and Greg O’Donnell.Figure 7.5 Results of the Delhi WEAP model: (a) total population projection; (b) total waterdemand; and (c) unmet water demand with and without implementing the WMOs. (Credit:Dinesh Kumar).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData modelling 1517.3 LEVERAGING THE POWER OF AI FOR BUILDING PREDICTIVEMODELS ADAPTIVE TO FUTURE URBAN FLOODING IN ADDIS ABABA,ETHIOPIAWegayehu AsfawThe severity of and damage caused by flood hazards are expected to increasein the near future (Seneviratne et al., 2021) due to the simultaneous effectsof man-made and natural phenomena (Kam et  al., 2021; Muis et  al., 2015).At the local scale, rapid urban development and land use modifications havedriven the expansion of impermeable surfaces, contributing to the generationof excess runoff. Added to this, global climate change is causing flooding tobecome more frequent (Kundzewicz et al., 2014; Tabari, 2020). Observationsand model simulation outputs from recent studies illustrate the intensificationof flood-induced extreme rainfall events, both in magnitude and intensity(Arnell & Gosling, 2016; Gu et  al., 2022; He et  al., 2022). What’s worse,their impact is more pronounced in low- and lower-middle-income countries,where drainage infrastructure is inadequate, hydrological and meteorologicalmonitoring is meagre, and flood forecasting systems are either unavailable ornot well established. More efficient approaches are therefore needed to assessthe problem of flooding at local, regional, and global scales, taking into accountexisting data gaps and local conditions.Flooding is a dynamic, complex, and nonlinear event involving hydroclimatic, geomorphometric, anthropogenic, and other environmental causativefactors. However, the connection between flooding and anthropogenic factors,as well as climate-related drivers, has not received much attention. We know thatanthropogenic factors (population growth, urban expansion, and imperviousinfrastructure) and climatic factors (extreme rainfall events) are changing overtime, but their impact on flooding is less known. Previous studies on the relationshipbetween independent flood-causing factors and expected consequences have usedphysical-based models, such as hydraulic, hydrological, and hydrodynamic models(Guo et al., 2021); these models, however, require extensive input data in order tocalibrate and accurately represent the study area’s characteristics. It is a challengeto generate reliable model outputs for countries with limited data availability.Recent years have seen promising advances with regard to understandingthese complex interactions through machine learning models. Machinelearning is a subset of artificial intelligence (AI) that uses automatedtechniques to learn from data and past experiences to identify patternsand make predictions with minimal human intervention (IBM, n.d.; MIT,n.d.). By utilising machine learning models, we can bridge the gap betweenstudying how human activities contribute to flooding and understanding theirimplications for the future.OverviewWith recent advances in AI technology, machine learning models haveevolved significantly: they are now able to produce flood susceptibility mapsworldwide as they can handle a big volume of multifarious data. And thisDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest152 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityadvanced learning approach is increasingly used alongside traditional physicalbased flood prediction methods. Indeed, machine learning models are oftentrained on such physical models: they learn patterns from historical flooddata, satellite imagery, and other relevant datasets, allowing them to adapt tothe ever-changing urban landscapes. Machine learning allows multifariousgeospatial data to be integrated with various conditional factors, producing avery different perspective of flood susceptibility predictions to those producedby traditional approaches. Machine learning models can also adapt and learnfrom new data, continuously improving their predictive capabilities andaccommodating the dynamic nature of urban environments. While machinelearning does generally heavily rely on historic data to produce accurateinformation for flood prediction, nowadays we are seeing advanced approaches(e.g. in Safonova et al., 2023) that can be transferred from data-rich to datascarce regions, providing a great potential route for knowledge creation in lowresource urban contexts.MaterialTo create a flood susceptibility map for urban areas using machine learning,it is necessary to integrate a wide range of geospatial datasets, representingvarious factors that influence floods in cities. Such datasets include historicalflood inventories, satellite images, land use and land cover maps, digitalelevation models that represent the surface topography, geological maps, in-situor remotely sensed meteorological datasets, among others.Historical flood data is crucial for the machine learning model to learn andidentify patterns and correlations between past events and the factors that triggerthem. However, collecting this data manually on the ground is slow, expensive,and inefficient, especially for large areas. Satellite imagery can be a cost-effectivealternative for near real-time extraction of flood data without spatial and timeconstraints. Likewise, land use and land cover data from satellite images areimportant for understanding the urban environment and assessing the impactof human activities on runoff generation. Elevation data, obtained from sourceslike digital elevation models, helps identify low-lying areas, river networks,drainage patterns, and potential flood pathways.2 And then meteorologicaldata, particularly rainfall, is essential for evaluating the climatic variables thatinfluence flood susceptibility. Finally, all of the above can be incorporated withconditioning factors such as geology, soil, and other relevant environmentalvariables. The combination of these diverse datasets enables machine learningmodels to identify complex spatial relationships and patterns, resulting in moreaccurate and reliable flood susceptibility maps for urban areas.MethodsDeveloping a flood susceptibility map for an urban area using machinelearning involved a number of key steps. First things first, we had to select2 Digital elevation models are digital models or 3D representations of a terrain’s surfacecreated from terrain elevation data (ESDS, n.d.).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData modelling 153the appropriate machine learning algorithm based on data availability, thecomplexity of the issue, dataset size, and model interpretability. Then, wedivided the flood inventory dataset into training and testing sets, typically ina 70%/30% ratio. The training set enabled the model to learn patterns andrelationships, while the testing set evaluated its accuracy on an independentset of new data. During the model training, relationships between input andtarget variables were optimised to improve predictive capabilities and preventoverfitting. Once the model was trained, it was tested using the remaining 30%of the dataset to assess its predictive performance using metrics like accuracy,precision, recall, and F1 score (a machine learning evaluation metric). Lastly,we continuously monitored, updated, and validated the model with new datato enhance accuracy over time. This procedure can be used to train machinelearning models and deploy them in areas lacking in-situ data to providevaluable flood predictions for decision-making of flood preparedness.ApplicationEthiopia has experienced numerous devastating floods in recent years, causingloss of life and property (Mamo et al., 2019). Many efforts have been made tostudy flooding in different areas of the country, mainly focusing on mappingthe extent of historical flooding using satellite imagery (Bekele et  al., 2022;Haile et al., 2023). However, the identification and prediction of hotspot areasto support proactive flood management have not yet received comparableattention. This case study addresses this lack, demonstrating how machinelearning can be used to predict the susceptibility of the capital city of Ethiopia,Addis Ababa, to flooding.In this example, a machine learning algorithm was trained and tested usingtwo main types of data. Initially, various geospatial layers representing thefactors contributing to flooding were examined. For the purposes of this study,these included attributes of precipitation, topographic and geomorphologicalvariables, land cover, soil, and features that represent anthropogenic activitiesand interventions. Subsequently, a dataset containing locations that had eitherbeen inundated or not inundated in the past five years was extracted from floodextent maps.The utilisation of these datasets in the model was not a straightforward process,beset by challenges ranging from data quality issues to inconsistent datasetformats, necessitating meticulous and time-consuming processing and analysis.Consequently, systematic methods were employed to enhance the dataset quality,including leveraging similar but alternative datasets and establishing workflowsto ensure dataset consistency, in order to reach the final prediction outcomes.For instance, building footprints with different data formats from Google andMicrosoft were accessed and processed to yield higher quality data. Similarly,multiple satellite estimates were blended to generate gridded rainfall data ofenhanced quality for the study area (Asfaw et  al., 2023). All in all, this casestudy involved gathering multi-dimensional data, which was then pre-processedand transformed into a suitable format to train and test the model; the modelcould subsequently be used to predict flood susceptibility across the city. As themodel implemented in this example mainly used global databases to generate theDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest154 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitynecessary inputs, this workflow can be transferred, scaled, and applied to otherdata-poor areas, including parts of sub-Saharan Africa.The output map (Figure 7.6) below visually represents the varying levelsof flood susceptibility, as indicated by the colour gradient from low (blueand green) to higher (yellow and red) susceptibility. Based on the model’spredictions, the northern region of the city, primarily encompassed by amountain range, exhibits a minimal likelihood of flooding. Conversely, thecentral and southern areas, characterised by dense urban development,are highly prone to flooding, ranging from moderate to extremely highsusceptibility. In general, the findings highlight the significant influence offactors such as slope, intense precipitation, land cover, population density,and the presence of road and drainage systems on the occurrence of frequentflooding in the given location.The steps articulated in the figure are:(1) Data collection(2) Data formatting and integration(3) AI model training and testing(4) AI model deployed(5) AI model produces flood susceptibility predictionsConclusionMachine learning models provide valuable prediction outputs that initiateand support the process of proactive flood mitigation strategies. These modelshave powerful computational capabilities and can effectively uncover hidden,Figure 7.6 The workflow diagram shows the application of an AI-based approach,together with a cloud computing platform using a variety of Earth observation geospatialdatasets, to predict urban areas’ susceptibility to flooding in the city of Addis Ababa,Ethiopia. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData modelling 155complex, and nonlinear geospatial interactions among datasets. They are alsoadaptable, allowing for easy modifications and reproductions, along withthe capability to seamlessly integrate new information. In general, machinelearning models have the ability to produce reliable maps and predictions ofthe susceptibility of urban areas to flooding, which can help the followingprofessionals in various fields by providing crucial information for planning,decision-making, and risk mitigation.City planners and urban designersUrban flood susceptibility maps play a crucial role in the development ofresilient and sustainable urban infrastructure. By integrating such informationinto urban development plans, city planners can effectively guide the placementof critical infrastructure, residential areas, and green spaces. This proactiveapproach ensures that cities are better prepared to mitigate the effects offlooding and improves their overall resilience.Emergency respondersUrban flood susceptibility maps can provide valuable information to emergencyresponders, helping to improve their preparedness and response to flood events.By using these maps, emergency responders can effectively identify high-riskareas, strategise evacuation routes, and allocate resources more efficientlyduring flood emergencies. As a result, they can better mitigate the effects offlooding and ensure the safety of potentially affected communities.Insurance industryThe information provided by urban flood susceptibility maps is vital to theinsurance industry, as it enables better assessment and management of risk.Using these maps, insurance companies can analyse the likelihood of floodingfor individual properties and determine appropriate insurance rates. And thisdata plays a key role in improving the accuracy of risk assessment models.Real estate developers and investorsFlood susceptibility maps provide vital information to property developers andinvestors, enabling them to make informed decisions about where to invest anddevelop. By using these maps, developers and investors can assess the floodrisk associated with potential projects and ensure that new developments arestrategically located in areas that are less prone to flooding. This proactiveapproach minimises the potential financial and environmental risks associatedwith flooding, ultimately safeguarding their investments and contributing tosustainable urban development.Transportation plannersUrban flood susceptibility maps can greatly improve transport infrastructureplanning: these maps provide valuable information that can be used to identifysusceptible transport routes and critical nodes. Having identified these areas,planners can effectively implement measures to protect against flooding andmaintain accessibility. This integration of susceptibility mapping into transportDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest156 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityplanning allows for a more comprehensive and proactive approach to mitigatingthe impact of flooding on transport systems.Public health officialsUrban flood susceptibility maps have the potential to improve health riskevaluation in the occurrence of floods: through the utilisation of these maps,public health authorities can accurately identify regions that are at heightenedrisk of waterborne diseases during flooding and implement proactive measuresto mitigate said risks.Infrastructure maintenance and utilities managementUrban flood susceptibility maps have the potential to improve infrastructuremaintenance and utility management, particularly when it comes to criticalinfrastructure. Managers of utilities such as water and sewage systems can usethese maps to identify areas where maintenance should be prioritised due toincreased flood risk.REFERENCESArnell N. W. and Gosling S. N. (2016). The impacts of climate change on river floodrisk at the global scale. Climatic Change, 134(3), 387–401, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1084-5Asfaw W., Rientjes T. and Haile A. T. (2023). Blending high-resolution satellite rainfallestimates over urban catchment using Bayesian Model Averaging approach.Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 45, 101287, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2022.101287Bekele T. W., Haile A. T., Trigg M. A. and Walsh C. L. (2022). Evaluating a new methodof remote sensing for flood mapping in the urban and peri-urban areas: applied toAddis Ababa and the Akaki catchment in Ethiopia. Natural Hazards Research,2(2), 97–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nhres.2022.03.001Bhave A. G., Conway D., Dessai S. and Stainforth D. A. (2018). Water resource planningunder future climate and socioeconomic uncertainty in the Cauvery River Basinin Karnataka, India. Water Resources Research, 54(2), 708–728, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017WR020970Bhave A. G., Bulcock L., Dessai S., Conway D., Jewitt G., Dougill A. J., Kolusu S. R. andMkwambisi D. (2020). Lake Malawi’s threshold behaviour: A stakeholder-informedmodel to simulate sensitivity to climate change. Journal of Hydrology, 584, 124671,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124671Bhave A. G., Conway D., Dessai S., Dougill A. J. and Mkwambisi D. (2022). Stress-testingdevelopment pathways under a changing climate: water-energy-food security in thelake Malawi-Shire river system. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A:Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 380(2221), 20210134, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2021.0134Earth Science Data Systems (ESDS) (n.d.). Digital Elevation/Terrain Model (DEM).NASA. https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/topics/land-surface/topography/terrainelevation/digital-elevation-terrain-model-dem (accessed 12 April 2024)Gu L., Chen J., Yin J., Slater L. J., Wang H.-M., Guo Q., Feng M., Qin H. and Zhao T.(2022). Global increases in compound flood-hot extreme hazards under climatewarming. Geophysical Research Letters, 49(8), e2022GL097726, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL097726Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData modelling 157Guo K., Guan M. and Yu D. (2021). Urban surface water flood modelling – a comprehensivereview of current models and future challenges. Hydrology and Earth SystemSciences, 25(5), 2843–2860, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-2843-2021Haile A. T., Bekele T. W. and Rientjes T. (2023). Interannual comparison of historicalfloods through flood detection using multi-temporal Sentinel-1 SAR images, AwashRiver Basin, Ethiopia. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation andGeoinformation, 124, 103505, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2023.103505He Y., Manful D., Warren R., Forstenhäusler N., Osborn T. J., Price J., Jenkins R.,Wallace C. and Yamazaki D. (2022). Quantification of impacts between 1.5 and4°C of global warming on flooding risks in six countries. Climatic Change, 170(15),https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03289-5IBM (n.d.). What Is Machine Learning (ML)? https://www.ibm.com/topics/machinelearning (accessed 12 April 2024)Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (2017). Water Policy for Delhi 2017.Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi, India. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/IND222020.pdf (accessed 12 April 2024)Jalsuraksha (n.d.). Water Security and Sustainable Development Hub. IIT Delhi IndiaCollaboratory, Water Security and Sustainable Development in National CapitalTerritory of Delhi. https://jalsuraksha.iitd.ac.in/ (accessed 12 April 2024)Kam P. M., Aznar-Siguan G., Schewe J., Milano L., Ginnetti J., Willner S., McCaughey J.W. and Bresch D. N. (2021). Global warming and population change both heightenfuture risk of human displacement due to river floods. Environmental ResearchLetters, 16(4), 044026, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd26cKumar D., Dhanya C. T., Bhave A. G., Razavi S. and Gosain A. K. (2022). Assessingwater management pathways for environmental flow management under uncertainfutures in the Upper Yamuna Basin. AGU Fall Meeting 2022, 12–16 December2022, Chicago, US, H42J–1407. https://agu.confex.com/agu/fm22/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/1126274 (accessed 12 April 2024)Kundzewicz Z. W., Kanae S., Seneviratne S. I., Handmer J., Nicholls N., Peduzzi P.,Mechler R., Bouwer L. M., Arnell N., Mach K., Muir-Wood R., Brakenridge G.R., Kron W., Benito G., Honda Y., Takahashi K. and Sherstyukov B. (2014). Floodrisk and climate change: global and regional perspectives. Hydrological SciencesJournal, 59(1), 1–28, https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2013.857411Kwakkel J. H. and Haasnoot M. (2019). Supporting DMDU: A taxonomy of approachesand tools. In: Decision Making Under Deep Uncertainty: From Theory toPractice, V. A. W. J. Marchau, W. E. Walker, P. J. T. M. Bloemen and S. W. Popper(eds.), Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, pp. 355–374, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05252-2_15Loucks D. P. and van Beek E. (2017). Water resource systems modeling: Its role in planningand management. In: Water Resource Systems Planning and Management, D. P.Loucks and E. van Beek (eds.), Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, pp.51–72, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44234-1_2Mamo S., Berhanu B. and Melesse A. M. (2019). Historical flood events andhydrological extremes in Ethiopia. In: Extreme Hydrology and Climate Variability:Monitoring, Modelling, Adaptation and Mitigation, A. M. Melesse, W. Abtewand G. Senay (eds.), Elsevier, Netherlands, pp. 379–384, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815998-9.00029-4Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) (n.d.). Machine Learning, Explained.MIT Management Sloan School. https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/machine-learning-explained (accessed 12 April 2024)Muis S., Güneralp B., Jongman B., Aerts J. C. J. H. and Ward P. J. (2015). Flood risk andadaptation strategies under climate change and urban expansion: a probabilisticDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest158 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityanalysis using global data. Science of The Total Environment, 538, 445–457,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.068Safonova A., Ghazaryan G., Stiller S., Main-Knorn M., Nendel C. and Ryo M. (2023).Ten deep learning techniques to address small data problems with remote sensing.International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 125,103569, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2023.103569Seneviratne S. I., Zhang X., Adnan M., Badi W., Dereczynski C., Di Luca A., GhoshS., Iskandar I., Kossin J., Lewis S., Otto F., Pinto I., Satoh M., Vicente-SerranoS. M., Wehner M. and Zhou B. (2021). Weather and climate extreme events ina changing climate. In: Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis, V.Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb,M. I. Gomis, J. B. R. Matthews, S. Berger, M. Huang, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, B. Zhou, E.Lonnoy, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, K. Leitzell and N. Caud (eds.), CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1513–1766, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.013Tabari H. (2020). Climate change impact on flood and extreme precipitation increaseswith water availability. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 13768, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-70816-2Walsh C. L., Roberts D., Dawson R. J., Hall J. W., Nickson A. and Hounsome R. (2013).Experiences of integrated assessment of climate impacts, adaptation and mitigationmodelling in London and Durban. Environment & Urbanization, 25(2), 361–380,https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247813501121Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0159© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Diana Marcela Ruiz Ordóñez, Carolina Salcedo Portilla,Samy Mafla Noguera and Jemila Mohammed KassaOne of the biggest barriers to water security is a lack of integrated data, bothquantitative and qualitative. The spotlights in this chapter seek to address thisby drawing on a range of data sources to support integrated risk analysis of arange of issues, both as researchers and with stakeholders, and to facilitate anopen dialogue with appropriate administrations, at all levels, to improve datafor management of basins. From empirical and experiment-based research, wehave found that integrating a plurality of values and voices results in policiesand plans that address water insecurities in a more inclusive manner. Inthis chapter, authors present case studies from Colombia and Ethiopia thatdemonstrate how knowledge exchange, information sharing, and transnationalcollaboration ensure that structural/technical solutions are situated in – ratherthan divorced from – non-structural solutions.8.1 CONNECTING SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICESIN SOUTH-WESTERN COLOMBIADiana Marcela Ruiz Ordóñez, Carolina Salcedo Portilla and Samy Mafla NogueraIn south-western Colombia, water availability is limited due to the prioritisationof economic activities and drinking water supply for urban communities: thishas led to a deepening of socio-economic differences and worsening of watermanagement processes across urban and rural communities.In this spotlight, we analyse these dynamics from a socio-ecologicalperspective, with a focus on ecosystem services (ES). According to Gallopín(2006), socio-ecological systems are defined as systems that incorporate socialChapter 8Data integrationDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest160 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security(human) and ecological (biophysical) subsystems across a range of differentscales, from a small community or watershed to the whole of humanity. ES,meanwhile, are the ecosystem’s direct or indirect contributions to humanwell-being, depending directly on the system’s resilience (de Groot et  al.,2010).We discuss these dynamics in four case studies from the Upper Cauca RiverBasin (UCRB), where we involved local communities in a co-creation processbased on knowledge interchange and confidence building to better understandchanges in water quality. This approach allowed us to jointly identify the river’sproblems and find shared solutions, generating effective water managementstrategies by pooling our technical know-how and the traditional knowledgeof these communities.First, we described the condition of the basins’ socio-ecological systems.This is important because the ES are affected by changing land use and landcover (LULC). Then, through joint analysis of the ES, informed by scientifictechniques, zoning, and the collating of community perceptions, we generatedcommunity water management strategies, identifying actions that benefit orharm the ‘water that connects us’ or the ‘water that benefits us’ as a space ofco-responsibility.Thus, adopting a socio-ecological approach that incorporates spatial analysisand ES allows us to understand the complex relationship between communitiesand their territories. Indeed, it is arguably only by linking the hidden voicesof communities with land use patterns and assessing the provision of ES inthe UCRB that we can effectively understand the factors that influence waterquality.The Upper Cauca River BasinThe altitude of the UCRB ranges from 4700 metres above sea level at the topof the Puracé volcano to 950 metres above sea level in the alluvial valley ofthe Cauca. Its length is an estimated 520 km, and its overall area is around2 180 940 hectares (ha) (DNP, 2009).The population of the UCRB amounts to 5.9 million people, of which 65%is concentrated in the department of Valle del Cauca, followed by 15.5% inthe department of Cauca. Of the population in the basin, 75% is considered tobe urban and 25% is rural; in terms of ethnic makeup, 80% of the populationis either ‘mestizo’ or white, 10% is indigenous, and 10% is afro-descendant(Galvis, 2017; HUB Colombia Project, 2022; MADS, 2020).1 In light of thesebroad socio-economic and biophysical characteristics, we chose to focus onfour sub-basins that reflect the heterogeneity of the UCRB in the departmentsof Cauca and Valle del Cauca. They are: (i) Las Piedras, (ii) Río Claro, (iii)Guachal, and (iv) Mediacanoa (Figure 8.1).ProcessWe took a mixed methods approach, integrating analysis of spatial informationand descriptive-interpretative characteristics of ES by communities with1 ‘Mestizo’ is a term applied to those born from a union of two people of different ethnicities.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData integration 161Figure 8.1 The study area in the UCRB. (Credit: Samy Mafla Noguera).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest162 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitysocio-ecological perspectives of ES. The methodology is based on three guidingsteps: (i) socialisation and generation of trust in the communities; (ii) designof the workflow and validation of the instruments; and (iii) development andimplementation based on focus and participatory group workshops, interviews,and field visits.The ES and water quality were analysed through three iterative stages –diagnosis, perception, and analysis – which involved the identification andvaluation of ES through different tools, including participatory identification,indirect identification with crucial actors, and spatial analysis.The diagnostic phase presents the socio-ecological conditions of the casestudies, based on spatial analysis, LULC, the relationship between water intakesand pollution, and the identification of main water ES using the CommonInternational Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) framework(Haines-Young & Potschin, 2012). The second phase, perception, refers to theunderstanding of the current supply of ES in the sub-basins (adopting the CICESclassification); this information was collected through social cartographyand ethnographic studies implemented within community organisations andcomplemented by historical perspectives on ES transformations. Finally, in theanalysis phase, we discuss the ES zoning and the interaction between LULCand drivers of change in the UCRB.Case studiesWe encourage readers to click on the images below to explore each of the foursub-basin case studies in detail (Figures 8.2–8.5).• Las Piedras River Basin (Cauca Department): Las Piedras River runsbetween the Popayán and Totoró municipalities. This basin is the primarywater supply source of the city of Popayán, with hydrological strategicareas in the overlapping area of the Puracé National Natural Park.• Río Claro River Basin (Valle Department): The Río Claro River originatesin the mountain range between the city limits of Buenaventura, Jamundí,and Cali in the Farallones de Cali National Natural Park. This river flowsto the left of the UCRB, near the town of Paso de la Bolsa.• Guachal River Basin (Valle Department): The Guachal River is mainlyformed by the confluence of the Párraga, Frayle, Bolo, and Palmira Rivers,which join before entering the Cauca River.• Mediacanoa River Basin (Valle Department): The Mediacanoa River isin the centre of the Department of Valle del Cauca, between the Yotocoand Cauca River basins.DiagnosisThe land cover analysis reveals that the different regions have the followingmain characteristics:• Las Piedras: significant presence of pastures (2408 ha), other crop areas(2878 ha), and water drainage areas (e.g. rivers) (146 ha);Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData integration 163• Río Claro: permanent crops (4076 ha), other crop areas (1308 ha), andnatural areas (74 ha). The forests cover an area of 15 000 hectares;• Guachal: extensive urban area (1657 ha) with industrial/commercialsites (1157 ha), significant presence of permanent crops (57 000 ha), othercrop areas (17 580), and pastures (10 160 ha);• Mediacanoa: predominantly covered by permanent crops (4620 ha),other crop and transient crop areas (965 ha), and pastures (264 ha). Thelake covers an area of 1063 hectares.Figure 8.2 Las Piedras sub-basin. (Credit:Samy Mafla Noguera).Figure 8.3 Río Claro sub-basin. (Credit: SamyMafla Noguera).Figure 8.4 Guachal sub-basin. (Credit: SamyMafla Noguera.Figure 8.5 Mediacanoa sub-basin. (Credit:Samy Mafla Noguera).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest164 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityOne of the main demands in the UCRB is potable water for humanconsumption, together with agro-industrial activities, livestock, and fishing.Water supply infrastructure is often concentrated in the most denselypopulated areas of the region, such as the Popayán municipality, with a waterflow demand of 800 L/s from Las Piedras River, a water flow rate of 3624 L/s inGuachal River, and a water flow rate of 745 L/s in Río Claro River. In Río ClaroRiver Basin, meanwhile, the water supply is concentrated in communities withhigh socio-economic status, thus deepening the socio-economic gap. Eitherway, these water supply systems generally provide urban users with safe water;however, the inhabitants of the rural areas of Las Piedras, Guachal, and RíoClaro have limited access to drinking water, a situation that exacerbates socioeconomic tensions and fuels water conflicts.PerceptionWith the aim of highlighting the hidden voices of the territories and showinginteractions with and views of ES from the perspective of the communities andother actors, we present the specific ES identified and prioritised in each casestudy. These ES do not necessarily coincide with the CICES classification, butthey accurately represent local views on ES in the territories.Figure 8.6 shows that locals identified a significant number of regulating andcultural ES, when it comes to both biophysical changes and relevant aspects oftheir cultural forms and identity. Among the regulating ES, the migration of birdspecies, the life cycle and reproduction of fish species, the connotations of theRamsar site at the Sonso Lake,2 and the presence of aquatic ecosystems such aswetlands riparian vegetation stand out. In terms of cultural ES, expressions of art,traditional festivals, and local gastronomy have greater weight for the four basins.In addition, thanks to the contribution of the different people/communitieswho supported this process, we also gained access to historic perceptions andvaluations of ES, as preserved in local photographs that show daily life, values,and ES ratings, together with the experiences and narratives of the communities(Figures 8.7–8.10). We encourage readers to click on the images below to listento each of the sonorous postcards.AnalysisIn Las Piedras River Basin, we found that changes in land use and the loss ofecosystem elements and cultural identity are the main drivers of ES transformation.This affects the ES for climate and hydrological regulation, particularly in theupper and middle part of the basin. We also established that socio-environmentalconflicts arise between community stakeholders and institutions due to activitiessuch as cattle grazing in steeply sloped areas, which are prone to erosion, combinedwith challenges related to sustainable production processes, marketing channels,and supply of organic products in regional markets.2 The Upper Cauca River Wetland Complex associated with the Sonso Lagoon is locatedat coordinates 3°55′N–76°19′W Colombia. It is Ramsar site number 2403 with an areaof 5525 ha and was designated on 14 February 2017. This wetland complex is composedof 24 wetlands and is recognised as an ecosystem of great national and internationalimportance due to its wide biological diversity. Official link: https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/2403?language=enDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData integration 165Figure 8.6 Perceptions of the presence/absence of the provision of ES in each sub-basinper category (adapted to authors’ fieldwork 2018, 2022). (Credit: Livia Douse).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest166 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityIn the Río Claro River Basin, the main driver of overall transformationis changes in LULC related to the current demographic expansion in thedepartment of Valle del Cauca.ES and water regulation in the Guachal River Basin, meanwhile, areunder pressure due to the expansion of sugar cane cultivation, agriculturalfrontier growth, and cattle ranching. These activities not only endanger waterregulation and cultural relationships, but directly affect water quality, leadingto significant pollution and environmental risks in the basin.Finally, in the Mediacanoa River Basin, change is driven primarily bythe monoculture of sugar cane and the installation of infrastructure for itsproduction to improve economic sustainability.ConclusionGiven water’s critical role in the ecosystem and in human well-being, it isimperative to adopt an interdisciplinary lens to understand its complex interactionswith its environment. Through this research approach and methodologicalproposal, we explore the intricate conditions that determine water quality froma multidimensional perspective. This is supported by an understanding of howsocio-ecological factors shape dynamic transformations within the study cases,either hindering or enhancing the provision of ES. This involves consideringFigure 8.7 Omaira Balanta, environmentalleader.Figure 8.8 Jair Palacios, fisherman of SonsoLagoon.Figure 8.9 Las Piedras River community (1).(Figures 8.7-8.10 credit: rootsandwings.design).Figure 8.10 Las Piedras River community (2).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData integration 167different characteristics, changes, uses, and conflicts influenced by various socioeconomic and political characteristics unique to each area.Water pollution threatens the availability of water resources, whichthe inhabitants perceive as a threat throughout the sub-basins, since theriverbed is the axis along which socio-ecological dynamics are integrated.The emergence of wastewater-related conflicts and lack of basic sanitationaggravates this situation. What’s more, there is also low institutional influencein the region, which in itself leads to the strengthening and consolidation ofcommunity management and administration processes, such as the network ofreserves and field schools that are particularly prevalent in the lower zone ofthe sub-basin.In turn, we see challenges arise relating to the division between entities/institutions that support this type of strategy, where some communities aredirectly involved in understanding water dynamics in relation to ES, andsome are not. We argue that it is crucial for all institutions to articulate thephysicochemical changes in the resources they govern, to show awareness ofthe community’s connection to water with regard to identity, territory, andlifestyle, and to make the community members feel like they are part of thesolution to improve their living conditions.In this sense, addressing the socio-cultural relationship of ES together with thehydrological capacity of the basins to provide hydric ES strengthens the ability ofcommunities to self-organise and manage their own water, which, alongside aninstitutional action plan that integrates management, restoration, and conservationof key areas, should contribute to improving both governance around water andwater quality in the medium-term and long-term for rural communities.8.2 UNDERSTANDING WATER POLLUTION AND MICROBIALHAZARDS TO IMPROVE PUBLIC HEALTH IN ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIAJemila Mohammed KassaAddis Ababa is experiencing rapid urbanisation and population growth,leading to pollution of the rivers; this is putting the health of the city’s fivemillion inhabitants at risk from diseases caused by faecal and antimicrobialresistant bacteria. Because of limited wastewater treatment capacity and weakmonitoring and regulation, much of the city’s domestic, commercial, industrial,and agricultural wastewater is discharged untreated into Akaki River. TheAkaki River is the major water source of urban agriculture; the downstreamcommunities depend on it for animal watering, vegetable cultivation, and otherdomestic purposes (Gashaye, 2020; Hiruy et  al., 2022). According to someestimates, around 60% of the city’s agricultural produce is cultivated usingriver water, which presents a major public health concern (Woldetsadik et al.,2017). Because of this diverse use of river water, many people are exposed topollution hazards. Indeed, a major outbreak of acute watery diarrhoea in AddisAbaba in 2016 was attributed to open defecation, the discharge of untreatedsewage, and consumption of food sources contaminated by faecally pollutedriver water (Dinede et al., 2020).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest168 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityWe have seen several studies that have assessed water pollution issues, butvery few have addressed emerging issues such as these. Therefore, the WaterSecurity and Sustainable Development Hub, funded by Global ChallengesResearch Fund, decided to tackle these issues head-on by providing scientificevidence about the microbial community and level of drug resistance of thecommunity in Akaki.Microbial analysisBaseline information regarding the occurrence and prevalence of antibioticsresistant bacteria and pathogenic bacteria is essential to control the potentialpublic health problem. However, the nature of the microbial hazards in theAkaki watershed was not well understood until quite recently, even thoughevidence suggests they are already causing significant disease outbreaks(Dinede et al., 2020). Under the Water Security Hub umbrella, the InternationalWater Management Institute (IWMI), in collaboration with NewcastleUniversity and Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority (AAWSA),conducted river pollution studies. First and foremost, this meant providingtraining to laboratory technicians to build capabilities and competencies inmolecular water microbiology at AAWSA. The training focused on how to usean affordable suitcase laboratory for microbial community characterisationby 16S rRNA gene sequencing (Acharya et al., 2020) (see also Chapter 5.2).Subsequently, two AAWSA staff members visited the microbiology laboratoriesat Newcastle University for further training on molecular analysis in thesuitcase laboratory. This has enabled AAWSA staff to apply inexpensive androbust methods for near-real-time comprehensive water quality surveying usingportable next-generation sequencing devices; in turn, this has led to the firstever in-depth survey of microbial water quality in the Akaki watershed.By using next-generation sequencing, thousands of bacterial communitieswere detected for the first time in the Akaki River catchment. Worryingly, anumber of potentially significant waterborne pathogens were found in thiswatershed, including Arcobacter butzleri, which appeared in abundance. Thedetection of Vibrio cholerae marker genes also gave cause for concern, as itprovides strong evidence that Vibrio cholerae bacteria is originating fromhuman sewage in the Akaki catchment (Acharya et  al., 2020; Hiruy et  al.,2022). Nearly 70 million people in Ethiopia are thought to be at risk of cholera,which can cause severe, life-threatening diarrhoea – there are already 275 221estimated cases and 10 458 deaths per year (Ali et al., 2015; Dinede et al., 2020).In Addis Ababa, diarrheal diseases like cholera can be easily transmitted viathe use of sewage-polluted river water for the irrigation of crops sold on the citymarkets (Dinede et al., 2020).In addition, one of the most difficult public health crises facing us today isthe emergence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms – and our study shows theAkaki River watershed has a high concentration of bacteria that are resistantto antibiotics (Hiruy et al., 2022). This type of resistance is very concerning; itis expected to kill 10 million people annually by 2050 (Jampani et al., 2022).Still, now that the Water Security Hub has built microbial analysis capabilityat AAWSA, which has led to the recent inauguration of a wastewater laboratory,Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestData integration 169AAWSA is in a much better position to build an evidence base and understandthe link between water pollution, poor sanitation, and health.Enhanced collaborationThe Akaki River catchment in the city is highly affected by pollution. Both thepublic and private sectors are either directly or indirectly involved in managingthis. Notable players include Addis Ababa Environmental Protection Authority,AAWSA, Addis Ababa Cleansing Management Agency, and the Ministry ofWater and Energy, alongside universities and research institutes includingIWMI, which contribute various research findings about water pollution in theAkaki River and its health impacts.However, a lack of collaboration and data integration between stakeholdersexacerbates water management issues. Hence, there is a need for academic andcorporate/governmental stakeholders to collaborate to address challenges,bridge gaps, and search for solutions. We’ve already seen a number of positivedevelopments on this front: for instance, AAWSA’s collaboration with IWMIand Newcastle University has led to the establishment of the Addis AbabaAdaptation Network, which brings together experts from different fieldsto develop a co-produced approach. This network is now in the process ofbeing widened out to facilitate greater collaboration between governmentstakeholders, researchers, and both financial and civil organisations involvedin the Akaki Basin. We expect this iterative process to lead to more reliable,inclusive, and sustainable governance across the region when it comes to waterpollution.ConclusionAAWSA benefited from the Water Security Hub’s expertise, learning how tosurvey water quality in near real time using portable next-generation sequencingdevices, plus how to collaborate effectively with different stakeholders. Theresearch outputs from this study will inform future interventions regardingriver pollution.The Water Security Hub contributed to this achievement by providingfinancial and technical support, as well as consumables for the laboratoryanalysis, knowledge exchange through practical training, workshops, webinars,and technological innovations.REFERENCESAcharya K., Blackburn A., Mohammed J., Haile A. T., Hiruy A. M. and Werner D. (2020).Metagenomic water quality monitoring with a portable laboratory. Water Research,184, 116112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116112Ali M., Nelson A. R., Lopez A. L. and Sack D. A. (2015). Updated global burden ofcholera in endemic countries. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 9(6), e00038,https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003832de Groot R. S., Alkemade R., Braat L., Hein L. and Willemen L. (2010). Challenges inintegrating the concept of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning,management and decision making. Ecological Complexity, 7(3), 260–272, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecocom.2009.10.006Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest170 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityDinede G., Abagero A. and Tolosa T. (2020). Cholera outbreak in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia:a case-control study. PLOS ONE, 15(7), e0235440, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235440Gallopín G. C. (2006). Linkages between vulnerability, resilience, and adaptivecapacity. Global Environmental Change, 16(3), 293–303, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.02.004Galvis A. (2017). Estado del Arte Sobre la Calidad del río Cauca. Foro Nacional EInternacional Recuperación del río Cauca: Toma de Decisiones Oportunas Para elAbastecimiento de Agua en la Región. (The Quality of the Cauca River. Nationaland International Forum for the Recovery of the Cauca River: Making TimelyDecisions for the Water Supply in the Region). Universidad del Valle, InstitutoCinara, Santiago de Cali, Colombia.Gashaye D. (2020). Wastewater-irrigated urban vegetable farming in Ethiopia: a reviewon their potential contamination and health effects. Cogent Food & Agriculture,6(1), 1772629, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1772629Haines-Young R. and Potschin M. (2012). Common International Classification ofEcosystem Services (CICES) Version 4: Response to Consultation. Centre forEnvironmental Management, University of Nottingham, UK.Hiruy A. M., Mohammed J., Haileselassie M. M., Acharya K., Butte G., Haile A. T., WalshC. and Werner D. (2022). Spatiotemporal variation in urban wastewater pollutionimpacts on river microbiomes and associated hazards in the Akaki catchment,Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Science of the Total Environment, 826, 153912, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153912HUB Colombia Project. (2022). Biophysical and Socio-Economic Characterisation ofthe Upper Cauca River Basin (UCRB). Universidad del Valle, Santiago de Cali,Colombia.Jampani M., Gothwal R., Mateo-Sagasta J. and Langan S. (2022). Water qualitymodelling framework for evaluating antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments.Journal of Hazardous Materials Letters, 3, 100056, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazl.2022.100056Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development (MADS). (2020). The Basinand its Basic Characteristics: Collaborative Platform 2 Upper Cauca River Basin.National Government of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia.National Planning Department (DNP). (2009). CONPES 3624: Programme for theClean-Up, Management and Environmental Recovery of the Upper Basin of theRiver Cauca. National Government of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia.Woldetsadik D., Drechsel P., Keraita B., Itanna F., Erko B. and Gebrekidan H. (2017).Microbiological quality of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) irrigated with wastewater inAddis Ababa, Ethiopia and effect of green salads washing methods. InternationalJournal of Food Contamination, 4(3), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40550-017-0048-8Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_00171© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Victoria Anker, Rachael Maysels and Maria Valasia PeppaThe spotlights in the knowledge principle demonstrate examples of a datainformation-usage-action approach to water insecurity issues in differentinfrastructure contexts in Colombia, Ethiopia, India, Malaysia, and the UK. Inparticular, the spotlights on the development and deployment of the suitcaselaboratory (Chapters 5.2 and 8.2) show how smart technology can expeditein-situ data capture and microbial analysis, thereby contributing to betterunderstanding of water pollution and the likelihood of emerging threats topublic health, such as waterborne diseases. These spotlights also advocatefor knowledge exchange and the democratisation of information via capacitybuilding across different actors, including non-experts, young scientists, localcommunities, and members of different institutions in academia and industrythroughout the world.Other spotlights (Chapters 5.1 and 6.2) demonstrate that freely available,remotely sensed data of regional and global spatial coverage can successfullycomplement fragmented, limited, or even inaccessible pre-existing in-situ data,providing a more comprehensive view of existing pressures. For instance,optical satellite images can help monitor the water level and quantity ofwater bodies over time and correlate this with the presence or absence ofcontaminants (Chapter 5.1). Indeed, freely accessible information, once it hasbeen subjected to appropriate data analysis and modelling, can provide nearreal-time understanding of sudden climate variations (Chapter 6.2), allowingfor a proactive response to potential threats. Both of these spotlights promoteopen science, featuring rigorous methods that can be shared (e.g. via freelyavailable cloud platforms) with non-experts, such as government agenciesthat might otherwise be unfamiliar with such open-source datasets. Chapter7.2, meanwhile, describes how to leverage advanced articial intelligencePrinciple 2Knowledge – conclusionDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest172 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitymethodologies to predict urban flood susceptibility, a challenging task fora human expert to complete in a timely manner, as it involves multifariousgeospatial data modelling. By contrast, state-of-the-art machine learningmethods can easily integrate datasets from different sources to predict hazards,generating knowledge even in data-scarce regions.We have already seen that rigorous methodologies and tools are of paramountimportance in modelling data and then translating it into meaningful informationfor sustainable solutions – which can be implemented to proactively managewater resources. For example, appropriate, well-established data modellingprocedures can be used to evaluate solutions for future scenarios to bettermanage urban water resources in light of socio-economic pressures and climatevariability (Chapter 7.1). We see that the active engagement of policymakersthroughout the dynamic data modelling process helps reshape policies andrevise plans in response to potential threats to water security. Similarly,Chapter 6.1 showcases how a unified database web platform can visualise andinterpret a series of multifarious processed data with local and regional spatialcontext, with a potential to be extended nationwide. The database is set upusing the FAIR principles (see Principle 2. Knowledge – Introduction), enablingfree access to and reuse of meaningful information, and therefore supportingproactive decision-making for water resource management.We further contend that meaningful information can only be generatedwith inclusive knowledge from multiple voices, and not just by adopting puretechnocratic solutions without considering the socio-ecological context.Chapter 5.3 highlights the importance of understanding people’s behavioursand designing qualitative data capture to explore complex social phenomena.Adopting the CARE principles (Carroll et  al., 2020; see, again, Principle 2.Knowledge – Introduction), Chapter 8.1 demonstrates that building longterm relationships with local communities through geospatial ethnographicpractices can provide meaningful information about land use in relation towater use and ecosystem status.While technical expertise is a fundamental part of the process, especiallywhen it comes to applying rigorous scientific methodology to model andtranslate data into impactful knowledge, the spotlights in this principle haveshown that continuous participation, capacity building, active engagement, andmutual knowledge exchange between multiple actors are equally crucial for aneffective pathway towards proactive water management.REFERENCECarroll S. R., Garba I., Figueroa-Rodríguez O. L., Holbrook J., Lovett R., MaterecheraS., Parsons M., Raseroka K., Rodriguez-Lonebear D., Rowe R., Sara R., WalkerJ. D., Anderson J. and Hudson M. (2020). The CARE principles for indigenousdata governance. Data Science Journal, 19(43), 1–12, https://doi.org/10.5334/dsj-2020-043Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_00173© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Victoria Anker, Maheshwari Gupta and Alejandro Figueroa‘We must pass the earth on in a better condition to the next generations.We have the legislation to do this; the implementation is the concern,across the globe. Academia, experts, scientists, administration must allwork together.’Shri G. Ashok Kumar, Director General of the National Mission forClean Ganga, IndiaOur third principle is that, without collaboration, we cannot have equitablewater security. Through a series of spotlights, this section explores modes ofparticipation and engagement that bolster capabilities.SIGNIFICANCE OF PRINCIPLEWhile water insecurity is prevalent around the world, it does not affect allpeople equally: in fact, it disproportionately impacts marginalised communities(Boelens et  al., 2018). Some regions endure extreme drought year-round,while others experience extended periods of drought and periods of severerainfall (CRED & UNDRR, 2020). Climate change is exacerbating theseconditions and resulting in an outpouring of climate refugees, often in areasfacing intersectional socio-ecological issues such as conflict, extreme poverty,and food insecurity (Atapattu, 2020; Narayanaswamy et  al., 2023). Humandesigned systems are also drivers of inequitable impacts of water insecurity.The infrastructure responsible for delivering safe and consistent water topeople varies widely across the world in terms of coverage and effectiveness,often leaving those in worse socio-economic conditions without potable waterand sanitation services (Romero Lankao, 2011). Inequitable access to water isalso driven by ‘water grabbing’, which occurs when powerful actors mobilise toPrinciple 3Collaboration – introductionDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest174 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityforcefully relocate water and seize control of land, negatively impacting thosewhose livelihoods, culture, and well-being depend on water and the ecosystemin which it is entangled (Matthews, 2012).Throughout this principle, connections between the concepts of ‘inequity’and ‘governance’ emerge. To achieve water security, water needs to be treatedas ‘first among equals’ (Beck & Villarroel Walker, 2013: 627). A repatterning ofwater, along with other factors such as land, needs to reshape socio-ecologicalrelations and power hierarchies. This is because water is deeply connectedto other socio-natural resources (Franco et  al., 2013). Thus, water securityconcerns contribute to multiple governance processes; the pluralistic nature ofwater values and the competing demands for this natural resource need to bearticulated (Geleta et al., 2023) so that decision-makers can reconcile variousconsiderations and trade-offs, with the aim of implementing sustainable waterresource management.Effective water management requires the seamless integration of policiesand strategies, ensuring they complement and support each other. Policies setthe overall framework for water management, while strategies provide specificsolutions to achieve policy goals. Integration ensures that actions taken inwater management align with broader objectives and maintain consistencyacross different sectors. Implementing water policies and strategies can bechallenging due to conflicting interests, limited financial resources, anddifficulties in coordinating between various sectors. Despite these challenges,there are opportunities for collaboration, cooperation, and capacity building toaddress complex water management issues effectively.For example, in Colombia, researchers have contributed to the formationof the Commission for the Upper Cauca River Basin (UCRB) Recovery– a collective initiative that promotes action and collaboration betweenmultiple stakeholders for sustainability and water security in the region. TheCommission comprises public and private entities, and arose from the failure ofthe current model of water resource management in Colombia (Sánchez Torreset al., 2022). It operates through a Memorandum of Understanding between 28institutions, centred on a shared vision between all actors involved, based onthe concepts of biocultural diversity and the rights of nature. This facilitatescollaborative governance, enabling the achievement of shared outcomes andbenefits for all stakeholders with greater transparency and commitment. It alsoallows for connectivity between all relevant stakeholders and their ability toparticipate in and agree on actions to be taken in the short, medium, and longterm. Research, innovation, and development, alongside the roles, knowledge,and skills of all actors, are recognised as fundamental pillars of the recoverystrategy for the benefit of humans and more-than-humans.THEORY VS PRACTICEBuilding equitable partnerships and emphasising the importance of relationshipsis key to collaboration. Collaboration brings together a range of stakeholderswith different skills, knowledge, and experiences to work towards a commongoal, despite their diverse values and perspectives. Multiple fields, from socialsciences to ecology, are witnessing the rapid production of a body of literature inDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCollaboration – introduction 175which different forms of collaboration are assessed and ranked (Ananga et al.,2021; Bell & Reed, 2022; Hart-Fredeluces et al., 2023; Wolff, 2021). However,these articles often leave little room for acknowledgement of the complexityof collaboration, which otherwise risks becoming homogenous, with culturalvariations smoothed out and societal differences flattened. From contributingto democratic processes (Callahan, 2007) to crowdsourcing for data processing(Wolff, 2021), we posit that collaboration is relative and context dependent. Itcan, and indeed must, take different forms: as a global project tackling watersecurity issues across different locations and contexts, we know how important itis that we work together, building cross-country relationships to share expertise.We believe equitable collaboration has the potential to be the most effectiveroute towards finding sustainable solutions. Cooperation is central to howour research programme was developed and delivered, through the creationof collaboratories (collaborative laboratories). A collaboratory provides aco-creative process for bringing together stakeholders from local communities(many of whom are marginalised groups), industry, government, regulators,professional bodies, and the third sector, alongside researchers (Muff, 2014).Each of the countries in which we work – Colombia, Ethiopia, India, and Malaysia– face different development transitions that illustrate the global challenges tosustainable water security. This is why we created our collaboratories; as spacesto explore water security issues, share ideas, formulate activities, reconciletrade-offs, and apply interventions according to their development needs.However, it is important to note that these collaborative approaches have theirlimitations: we recognise their inability to address systemic injustices in areassuch as governance structures and democratic participation. While inclusivityis the ideal, it is not always easy. For example, we use the term ‘citizen science’ todescribe people taking part in activities such as data gathering, but ‘citizenship’has a very different meaning – both for those denied it and across differentdisciplines. Collaboration is therefore a complicated concept: who defines itand who is allowed to take part? We have witnessed the active reluctance ofsome stakeholders to engage with those they perceive as marginalised, andwe have seen the suspicion among those who are marginalised to engage withthose they view as part of the establishment. Understanding the multiplicity ofvalues and experiences, recognising the heterogeneity of those involved, andacknowledging subsets of power/authority are thus prerequisites to creating anenabling environment for collaboration.Finally, building relationships and trust takes time and we must alwaysbe conscientious and alert to our own positionalities. This applies to bothcollaboration with our stakeholders and cooperation with our fellow researchers.While we, as researchers, are committed to rigorous and systematic research,it is important that we acknowledge our own biases within our problemsolving approaches and recognise the complexities of ensuring equitableengagement within international research partnerships (Narayanaswamyet  al., 2023). True interdisciplinary teams are hard to build. They requireexposure to, and acceptance of, different cultures and ways of working, and anindividual willingness to learn and grow. For us, we have found that we cannotmeaningfully collaborate without first acknowledging the positionalities wehold in relation to each other.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest176 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityAUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONSThe spotlights that sit in this section are united by the theme of collaboration,while also showcasing different forms of cooperation and engagement in orderto achieve just water security. We feature case studies from Colombia, Ethiopia,India, and Malaysia.In Chapter 9, Barriers to Collaboration, authors Nitin Singh, Savitri Kumari,and Shambhavi Gupta analyse the ways in which participation in decisionmaking processes can be hindered by, or limited to, those with real or perceivedauthority. Nitin and Savitri, in the opening spotlight, demonstrate how thecomplexity of the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi’s water governancelimits the efficacy, efficiency, and equity of the city’s water infrastructure.Through an analysis of different spatial scales and remits – from international tolocal – Nitin and Savitri expose the tensions among formal actors, and betweenformal and informal, private, and (sometimes) illegal actors. Acknowledging thecolonial roots of this complex arrangement, Nitin and Savitri then demonstratehow the issue of water security affects those living within and outside planneddevelopments, before highlighting the specific challenges of water insecurityfor the most vulnerable.In the spotlight that follows, Shambhavi continues the theme of exclusion,with a specific focus on Delhi’s ballooning younger generation. Shambhaviargues that children and young people have the potential to transform Delhi’sfuture but are often excluded from formal democratic routes to engagementdue to the bureaucratic nature of decision-making in the city. By focusing onbottom-up approaches to youth engagement as well as the ‘Main Bhi Dilli’ (‘I tooam Delhi’) campaign, Shambhavi shows how large-scale grassroots movementshave the ability to realise democratic processes through public participation.In the second chapter, Consultation, authors Neo Sau Mei and Adey NigatuMersha present spotlights in which researchers engage with stakeholdersfrom a range of sectors to ensure a broad range of voices, knowledge, andexperiences are included in the research process. Neo opens with a critiqueof the existing top-down governance structure of the Johor River Basin,which is typical of water management in Malaysia. However, there is growingrecognition within government agencies and other ‘powerful’ stakeholders thatthese processes have neglected indigenous and local communities for whomthe river is both home and source of income. Neo offers a practical case studyof how researchers at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia have sought to bridgethis divide through multiple routes to engagement. Similarly, Adey, in the nextspotlight, highlights how existing scenario modelling processes lack clearand transparent participatory processes. The spotlight provides a step-by-stepbreakdown of the methodological approach known as participatory scenariodevelopment, which enables a more holistic articulation of future scenariosthrough the integration and verification of stakeholder views.In the third chapter, Citizen Science, authors Zulfaqar Sa’adi, PrabhakarShukla, Likimyelesh Nigussie, and Tilaye Worku Bekele demonstrate how theprocess of citizen science creates multiple benefits – both for the citizen scientiststhemselves and those who subsequently use the citizen science-generated data.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCollaboration – introduction 177Zulfaqar’s spotlight showcases ‘RainCrowd’, an education-driven, crowd-basedproject that works with students in the local community to capture rainfalldata. By articulating how the project was created and deployed, Zulfaqar showshow the project feeds into other initiatives in Johor that seek to engage citizenscientists in their environment. Next, Prabhakar details how an innovative newapp uses a citizen science approach to gather crowdsourced data and real-timeobservations on urban flooding in NCT Delhi. The app allows users to engagedirectly in urban flooding reporting, facilitating not just the validation of thehydrological modelling, but also assisting government authorities with decisionmaking. Lastly, Likimyelesh and Tilaye show how the integration of citizenscience into formal flood early warning systems improves local resilience tohydrological hazards, protecting livelihoods of at-risk communities.In the fourth chapter, Co-Production, the spotlights highlight wherecommunities and community organisations have driven the identification ofproblems and implementation of solutions in collaboration with researchersand non-governmental organisations. In the first spotlight, Renu Khoslaspeaks from her perspective as Director of CURE, a non-profit organisationestablished in 2023 to empower and aid vulnerable populations living ininformal settlements across Delhi. Renu discusses the need to help improveaccess to basic sanitation by co-creating a process to understand needs andidentify solutions, while Sheilja Singh provides the situational context,explaining how poor sanitation provision has threatened the health and wellbeing of local communities. Meanwhile, in the second spotlight, our colleaguesin Colombia show how co-creation, knowledge exchange, and mutual learningunderpin their modus operandi, enabling them to implement projects – such asthe one Federico Pinzón and Andrés Fernando Toro Vélez describe here – thatare co-constructed with local communities and organisations. Nuestra Agua(Our Water) is a co-created community water information system that helpscommunities manage local water resources and monitor water use.In Community Leadership, the final chapter in this principle, CatalinaTrujillo Osorio presents a case study of stakeholders working together torevitalise their territory. United through concepts of care, these actors placewater and the environment at the heart of sustainable solutions. Recallingcriticisms of neoliberal approaches to water governance articulated in Chapters1 and 4, Catalina explores the diversity of water values expressed by differentpeople and cultures, management systems and regulations, and how theseinfluence water security.REFERENCESAnanga E. O., Naiga R., Agong S. G., Njoh A. J. and Vickers H. P. (2021). Examiningthe contribution of community participation in water resource production andmanagement: perspectives from developing countries. SN Social Sciences, 1(37),https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-020-00050-0Atapattu S. (2020). Climate change and displacement: protecting ‘climate refugees’within a framework of justice and human rights. Journal of Human Rights and theEnvironment, 11(1), 86–113, https://doi.org/10.4337/jhre.2020.01.04Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest178 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityBeck M. B. and Villarroel Walker R. (2013). On water security, sustainability, andthe water-food-energy-climate nexus. Frontiers of Environmental Science &Engineering, 7, 626–639, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-013-0548-6Bell K. and Reed M. (2022). The tree of participation: a new model for inclusive decisionmaking. Community Development Journal, 57(4), 595–614, https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsab018Boelens R., Perreault T. and Vos J. (eds.) (2018). Water Justice. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, UK, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316831847Callahan K. (2007). Citizen participation: models and methods. InternationalJournal of Public Administration, 30(11), 1179–1196, https://doi.org/10.1080/01900690701225366Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) and United Nations Officefor Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). (2020). The Human Cost of Disasters: AnOverview of the Last 20 Years (2000–2019). UNDRR, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.undrr.org/quick/50922 (accessed 6 June 2024)Franco J., Mehta L. and Veldwisch G. J. (2013). The global politics of water grabbing.Third World Quarterly, 34(9), 1651–1675, https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2013.843852Geleta Y., Haileslassie A., Simane B., Assefa E. and Bantider A. (2023). Mappingcommunity perception, synergy, and trade-off of multiple water values in theCentral Rift Valley water system of Ethiopia. Water, 15(16), 2986, https://doi.org/10.3390/w15162986Hart-Fredeluces G. M., Burnham M., Eaton W. M., Brasier K. J., Church S. P. andWildermuth G. (2023). Advancing the scholarship and practice of stakeholderengagement in working landscapes: identifying and responding to six key researchgaps. Socio-Ecological Practice Research, 5, 231–237, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-023-00162-wMatthews N. (2012). Water grabbing in the Mekong Basin: an analysis of the winners andlosers of Thailand’s hydropower development in Lao PDR. Water Alternatives, 5(2),393–411. https://www.water-alternatives.org/index.php/volume5/v5issue2/176-a5-2-12/file (accessed 6 June 2024)Muff F. (ed.) (2014). The Collaboratory. A Co-Creative Stakeholder Engagement Processfor Solving Complex Problems. Routledge, London, UK. https://www.routledge.com/The-Collaboratory-A-Co-creative-Stakeholder-Engagement-Process-forSolving/Muff/p/book/9781783531431 (access 03 February 2023)Narayanaswamy L., Ferritto R., Hillesland M., Anker V., Singhal S., Maysels R. M.,Bantider A., Charles K., Doss C., Kumar A., Mdee A., Neo S-M., Pinzón F. andMengistu B. T. (2023). Why a feminist ethics of care and socio-ecological justicelens matter for global, interdisciplinary research on water security. Frontiers inHuman Dynamics, 5, 1212188, https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2023.1212188Romero Lankao P. (2011). Missing the multiple dimensions of water? Neoliberalmodernization in Mexico City and Buenos Aires. Policy and Society, 30(4), 267–283, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polsoc.2011.10.007Sánchez Torres L. D., Galvis Castaño A., Gandini M. A., Almario G., Montero M. V.and Vergara M. V. (2022). Commission for the upper Cauca river basin recovery,collaborative governance for sustainability and water security. Frontiers in Water,4, 782164, https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2022.782164Wolff W. (2021). The promise of a ‘people-centred’ approach to floods: types ofparticipation in the global literature of citizen science and community-basedflood risk reduction in the context of the Sendai Framework. Progress in DisasterScience, 10, 100171, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2021.100171Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0179© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Nitin Singh, Savitri Kumari and Shambhavi GuptaCollaboration requires the engagement of a variety of different actors. As wesaw in our first principle, justice, certain actors are often excluded thanks toa lack of representation in processes, a lack of recognition in frameworks, orthe unjust distribution of resources: when viewed on Arnstein’s (1969) classicalscale, the involvement of such parties therefore oscillates between nonparticipation and tokenism. And this leads to ineffective engagement, whichreinforces inequitable outcomes. To add to this, the participation process ispower-driven and deeply rooted in bureaucratic governance channels. As thetwo following case studies demonstrate, the complexity of water governancesystems makes it challenging to address inequity: there are structural barriersin place that allow some people to engage and others to not.9.1 EXPLORING THE COMPLEXITY OF COLLABORATION FOR WATERGOVERNANCE IN NCT DELHI, INDIANitin Singh and Savitri KumariThe National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, the capital of India, is projectedto become the world’s largest urban agglomeration by 2030 (United Nations,2018).1 Such rapid population growth and urbanisation is set to exacerbate theexisting water demand–supply gap, deepening the ‘spaces of inequity created bywater’ to the detriment of the city’s many citizens who live in slums or informaland unauthorised settlements (Sarkar, 2021).Chapter 9Barriers to collaboration1 Delhi’s last census was in 2011 and the 2021 census was postponed. Estimates for thecity’s current population vary between 20 million people (Government of Delhi, 2023)and 33 million (World Population Review, n.d.).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest180 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityDelhi is located in a small sub-basin of the Yamuna River, the only majorriver that runs through the city’s administrative boundary. Delhi’s presentwater demand is around 1200 million gallons per day (MGD), of which only950 MGD can be produced, leaving a water demand–supply gap of 250 MGD.Furthermore, out of this 950 MGD, only 10% of the water is sourced internally(e.g. from aquifers and groundwater): Delhi is reliant on external sources for90% of its water (Government of NCT of Delhi, 2023).As a result of the 69th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1991, Delhi issimultaneously a city, union territory, and state. Delhi’s water governanceis multi-sectoral and multi-scalar, involving formal and informal actors andinstitutions at multiple different levels (Kumari & Biswas, 2022). The twomost important agencies responsible for Delhi’s water are the Delhi Jal Board(DJB), the nodal agency for water supply, drainage, and sewage services, andthe Delhi Development Authority (DDA), the planning, development, andconstruction agency. However, the intertwined and complex nature of Delhi’swater governance limits its efficacy, efficiency, and equity, privileging theupper and middle classes who reside in spaces served by the city’s formal waterinfrastructure (Kumar et al., 2021). Those living in unplanned developments,however, often do not receive adequate water provision, giving rise to informalactors with their own political and financial motives, which fill the waterdemand–supply gap (Birkinshaw, 2018).Mapping Delhi’s water governanceThe spectrum of actors involved in Delhi’s water governance span severalspatial scales and multiple remits. At a supranational level, intergovernmentalinstitutions, international financial organisations, and donor countriesinfluence policymaking and water narratives in India (Kumari & Biswas,2022). At a national level, the planning and management of water as a nationalresource sits with the Ministry of Jal Shakti (and its attendant departmentsand regulators), including interstate and transboundary water issues. However,under the Indian constitution, water is a state subject and thus the responsibilityof each individual state. As a result, a tension exists between national-levelpolicy, such as the National Water Policy, and the delivery/implementation ofsuch policies at a state level (Pandit & Biswas, 2019).The boundary between national and state is further complicated by regionalor interstate institutions such as the Upper Yamuna River Board (UYRB),which regulates the division of the Upper Yamuna’s waters. As well as Delhi,state signatories to the UYRB include the upper riparian states of UttarPradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Himachal Pradesh, whichprovide raw water to the capital. Other regional boards include the BhakhraBeas Management Board, which regulates water and power supply to the statesof Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, and Delhi.At the state level, various agencies operate under the aegis of theGovernment of National Capital Territory of Delhi (GNCTD), including theDJB. Established by an act of the GNCTD in 1998, the DJB is the primaryagency responsible for water supply, drainage, and sewage services in DelhiDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestBarriers to collaboration 181(GNCTD, 1998). Other agencies under the GNCTD include the Irrigation andFlood Control Department (IFCD) and Delhi Pollution Control Committee.Central government agencies, including the DDA, also function at this statelevel. Established by an act of parliament in 1957, the DDA is responsible forthe planning and development of the city through the master plans of Delhi,including infrastructure and utilities for water and sanitation services innew ‘development areas’ (Kumar et al., 2021). The National Capital RegionalPlanning Board, which focuses on Delhi, is also involved in the city’s growthand water governance.In addition to these policy, planning, and delivery institutions, there are arange of judicial and statutory institutions at national and state levels, includingthe Supreme Court of India, the National Green Tribunal, and the High Courtof Delhi. From supranational to state, the majority of actors and institutions atplay here are formal.However, at a local level, formal and informal actors operate simultaneously(Figure 9.1). The formal actors include Delhi’s three municipal bodies.2 TheDJB is the nodal agency for water supply and sanitation, as well as wastewatertreatment in the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD); the MCD, meanwhile,functions as a byelaw enforcer. The DJB supplies water in bulk to the New DelhiMunicipal Council and the Delhi Cantonment Board, which then take chargeof distribution, but the DJB is responsible for wastewater treatment in theseareas. Many planned settlements also have a Resident Welfare Association:this a voluntary organisation that represents their interests to the DJB andMembers of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs). Other non-state (but to somedegree, formalised) organisations include non-governmental organisations(NGOs) and civil society organisations (CSOs), which advocate and advise onwater-related issues in Delhi, for example access to safe and affordable water,groundwater depletion, and pollution.The DJB is not mandated to supply piped water to the unplanneddevelopments in Delhi, including slums, unauthorised colonies, and urbanvillages. Consequently, there are also a range of informal, non-state actors whooperate with varying degrees of authority and legality, including water tankerdrivers (both contracted by the DJB and private), private water vendors, andindividuals using illegal borewells and handpumps to meet their non-potablewater demands. As Truelove (2021) notes, there is not always a clear distinctionbetween ‘state’ and ‘non-state’ – some actors and modes of governance operatein the ‘twilight’ zone, blurring ‘the boundary between state and society’.Coordination for water equityFor some actors within this framework, cooperation and coordination arepossible. While the DJB is responsible for water supply, sewage, and drainage inDelhi, multiple other stakeholders work in tandem in their efforts to bridge thewater demand–supply gap. Public representatives like the MLAs and municipal2 These are the MCD, New Delhi Municipal Council, and Delhi Cantonment Board.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest182 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityFigure 9.1 The range of formal actors involved in Delhi’s water governance. Notably, this structure excludes a range of informal, private, andsometimes illegal actors. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestBarriers to collaboration 183councillors are an integral part of water governance processes at the locallevel, coordinating with DJB officials and releasing MLA funds to extend thelocal water supply infrastructure (mostly in informal areas). Civil bodies likeResident Welfare Associations and NGOs also play a pivotal role in ensuringthat unauthorised colonies and slums have access to at least the bare minimumwater supply by developing temporary groundwater supply systems and formalwater tankers (with the DJB’s knowledge). Coordination between these actorsis a necessary part of trying to meet Delhi’s water demand. A glimpse of thesecombined and coordinated efforts is shown in this video.Challenges to water equityIt should be noted that the complex horizontal and vertical matrix of watergovernance in Delhi has its origins in the colonial period (Kumar et al., 2021;Truelove, 2021). And this multi-level governance results in fragmentationand lack of convergence between actors. At a regional level, interstate waterdisputes between Delhi and its neighbouring upper riparian states are common,especially during summer. Such arguments should be dealt with by the UYRB,as the regional regulatory authority, but the DJB (a state agency) often bypassesthe regulator, appealing to the Supreme Court (the national judiciary) instead(Dutta, 2022; PTI, 2018).Within Delhi, the DJB and the DDA are the two most important state actors,but they do not coordinate effectively, which plagues the city’s water governance.While the two agencies acknowledge that collaboration is a necessity (as evidentin this video) and can articulate each other’s process, role, and responsibilitiesin developing the city’s water infrastructure, they fail to deliver the servicescollaboratively. To cite just one example, the DDA began developing the townof Dwarka (then named Papankalan) in the late 1980s/early 1990s. Designedfor the middle and increasingly upper classes, the neighbourhood was builtwithout an operational network of water infrastructure. Residents relied onwater tanks provided by the DDA and private (illegal) groundwater borewells.It was only after resident protests and an intervention by the Delhi High Courtthat Dwarka finally began receiving piped water supply in spring 2015 whenDJB took over distribution (Express News Service, 2015; Kumar et al., 2021).And if this example highlights how the current fractured system leads toinequitable access to water for those living within planned developments,the inequitable consequences for those living outside these residences areeven starker. As we saw in Chapter 3, the DDA prioritises development overlivelihoods, evicting farmers to rejuvenate floodplains. From the DDA’sperspective, the ‘illegal encroacher’ has no right to public land (Singhal, 2024).Exclusionary and inequitable water distribution mechanisms have legal backingunder the Delhi Jal Board Act, 1998, which excuses the DJB from providingwater supply ‘to any premises which have been constructed in contravention ofany law’ (GNCTD, 1998).As a result, an estimated 45% of the city’s population has been writtenout of the legal framework (MCD, 2009); in other words, it is legal to leavethese residents out of the DJB’s centralised piped water supply network. Dueto political pressure, DJB does use water tankers to provide potable water toDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest184 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityinformal localities, but this is largely insufficient, leading to the rise of invisibleand/or illegitimate actors and institutions who assume the role of state to meetthe local water demand (Figueroa-Benitez et al., 2023).This informal network brings with it a number of challenges, including:• Health risks – via the sale and consumption of contaminated water;• Exclusionary water practices – communities are not homogenous: thereare subsets of power and intersectional vulnerabilities within unplanneddevelopments;• Economic risk – private water costs more and constitutes a higherpercentage of salaries;• Protests and unrest – disruptive action tends to generate politicalattention, especially in the run-up to elections (Sarkar, 2021);• Illegal modes and practices – including boreholes, handpumps, illegaltapping of the DJB network, and illegal sale of potable state water that isthe water ‘mafia’ (Birkinshaw, 2018; Truelove, 2021);• Above all, resource uncertainty.ConclusionDelhi has one of the world’s most rapidly growing urban populations. Ifestimates are correct, it has already overtaken projections in the Master PlanDelhi (MPD) 2041, which expects the city’s population to hit 28 million by2041. Meeting the extra water demand will be a huge challenge, requiringthe redistribution of power, changes in democratic control and citizeninfluence, and shifting accountability structures. The hydro-solidarity amongregional actors like GNCTD and upper riparian states of Haryana, Punjab,Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Himachal Pradesh is of utmost importantto ensure uninterrupted raw water for Delhi. At the city level, coordinationand convergence among various central and state-level institutions likethe DDA, DJB, and IFCD is crucial for the design and implementation ofwater infrastructure that is fit for purpose. In addition, the effective publicparticipation of citizens, as envisaged in national and local water policies, holdsthe key not just to Delhi’s water equity, but its future water security as well.9.2 YOUTH IN URBAN WATER FUTURE: PARTICIPATION,RECOGNITION, AND ACCOUNTABILITY IN NCT DELHI, INDIAShambhavi GuptaIn 2023, India overtook China as the world’s most populous country accordingto United Nations population estimates (UNPFA, 2023). More than 40% ofIndia’s estimated 1.428 billion people are under 25 – equating to approximately560 million children and young people (Silver et al., 2023) – and every fourthchild (27.4%) lives in an urban area (Dhar & Thakre, 2020). India, specificallyits cities, is facing a youth bulge. It is predicted to have one of the youngestpopulations globally until 2030 (UNPFA, 2023).It is this younger generation that will face the consequences of our currentanthropogenic activities and bear the brunt of climate crisis-related destruction.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestBarriers to collaboration 185And notably, in one of the first large-scale surveys of young people (16–25 years)across the globe, 78% of youths living in India said that they were extremely orvery worried about the impact of climate change (Hickman et al., 2021).Children and young people (0–19 years) constitute around 37% of Delhi’spopulation (GNCTD, 2023). These children and young people will play a keyrole in future development; indeed, they have the potential to transform thecity’s socio-economic fortunes. At present, however, this potential is not fullyutilised, as youth participation in city building is negligible, even if the interestand desire to engage are present (Ghafoor-Zadeh, 2023).Youth participation in urban governanceBuilding child-friendly cities is not a new concept. The UNICEF-led ChildFriendly Cities Initiative, launched in 1996, defines a child-friendly city as‘a city, town, municipality or any system of local governance committed tofulfilling child rights as articulated in the Convention on the Rights of theChild’ (UNICEF, 2022). However, in their systemic literature review, CorderoVinueza et al. (2023) observed that the literature around the theme of ‘rightto the city’ is limited in its translation for theory to practice, especially whenparticipation and engagement in decision-making (particularly in urbanplanning) are strenuous.This is a particular challenge in Delhi, where decision-making is rootedin multi-level, bureaucratic channels of governance. Public participation inmetropolitan and local governance is mandated through the Delhi DevelopmentAct, 1957 (Kumar et  al., 2020). When it comes to urban planning however,statutory public participation usually only occurs after a draft plan has alreadybeen prepared (Kumar, 2017). Such is the case in Delhi: the DDA, a parastatalbody, circulates draft master plans, inviting objections and suggestions, butthe final documents may or may not incorporate those suggestions, as the finaldecision is based on the discretion of the authority.During the drafting of the MPD 2041, the Delhi Commission for Protectionof Child Rights called for the DDA to incorporate child-friendly spaces andservices (Express News Service, 2021; Hindustan Times, 2019). However, inthe absence of formal channels for children and youth consultation, otherorganisations have taken steps to facilitate youth participation in city planningand engagement in the urban environment.These organisations include the Bernand van Leer Foundation (aninternational funder), the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) (anational research institute), Beyond Built Trust (a national NGO), AnkurSociety for Alternative Education (ANKUR) (a local NGO), and City Sabha(a local CSO). Though they all focus on encouraging young people to engagewith their urban environment and participate in governance mechanisms, theoverall approaches of these organisations differ substantially. And it shouldbe stated that their work is centred on various facets of urban sector, ofwhich water is one of many. For instance, the Bernard van Leer Foundationand NIUA focus on building capacity among urban planners to design childfriendly cities through the provision of resources informed by NIUA’s ‘UrbanYouth Unit’, which acts as a forum for young people to engage in the processesDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest186 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityof urban development (NIUA, n.d.). For their part, Beyond Built Trust – expertsin landscape architecture, urban planning, and heritage conservation – andANKUR – experts in experimental pedagogy in marginalised neighbourhoods –use storytelling and place-based engagement to contextualise urban spacesand develop a sense of ownership. Thus, they encourage children to developan understanding of the themes of water and waste. Finally, City Sabha, withits focus on inclusive placemaking, works with young people to voice theirconcerns and visualise change.The work of these organisations is commendable, although, notably,ANKUR is the only organisation where local partnership with children andyoung people is actually envisioned and implemented. Furthermore, while theirwork centres on enabling youth recognition in urban decision-making, theseorganisations exist outside of Delhi’s governance system and so, despite theirengagement and advocacy, their ability to affect policy in a meaningful way islimited. Nevertheless, advocacy organisations like City Sabha and the Mai BhiDilli campaign did successfully influence the MPD 2041 preparation and publichearings in 2021 (Figure 9.2).Main Bhi Dilli: bottom-up planningIn order to build partnerships with the development authorities and agencies,the legal provision of objections and suggestions must be operationalised to itsmaximum. Recently, the public participation mandate was used by the ‘MainBhi Dilli’ (‘I too am Delhi’) campaign – a people’s campaign for an inclusiveand equitable planning approach to Delhi (MainBhiDilli, n.d.). The campaign,Figure 9.2 Excerpt of children’s testimony about their environment following a workshopled by ANKUR. Translation: ‘The rivulet flowing near the hilly squatters is black in colour.There is garbage and bricks and stones on the sides. All our friends play there.’ (Credit:Shambhavi Gupta).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestBarriers to collaboration 187which launched in 2018, brought together a group of 40 organisations to engagecitizens and historically excluded communities in the process of drafting theMPD 2041 through knowledge co-production. The campaign deliberatelyaimed to ‘propositionally counter the top-down and technocratic approach ofmaster planning’ and position itself as ‘as a source of data and knowledge aboutthe city’ that filled gaps in NIUA’s understanding (Lall et al., 2023). The waveof advocacy driven by the Main Bhi Dilli campaign – both in terms of drivingcitizen engagement and in opening discussions with the NIUA and the DDA –brings hope that bottom-up movements can inform and influence conventionalurban planning processes (Lall et al., 2023).Envisioning an urban water futureThe development authorities and service provision agencies need to make aproper effort to engage and educate young people, thus encouraging youthparticipation and rendering decision-making more inclusive. Most importantly,this will benefit communities residing in informal settlements, where accessto water, water quality, and water rights are all in question (see Chapter 10).This is only possible if current efforts to build recognition of young people indecision-making with respect to urban development widen out to include waterservice provision. This animated doodle uses Arnstein’s Ladder of Participation(Arnstein, 1969) to articulate the process.The Main Bhi Dilli campaign undoubtedly pioneered a large-scalebottom-up movement in Delhi. However, attention also needs to be broughtto the accountability of the public authorities and service provision agencies.For instance, the Main Bhi Dilli campaign simply supported the plan-makingprocess in Delhi, never questioning why the mandated process of participation(as per the Delhi Development Act, 1957) did not include primary surveys,which haven’t been undertaken since the second revision of the master plan.The voices of young people must be incorporated into Delhi’s planningsystem, in which civic surveys and public hearings can play significant roles.This should be supplemented by the work of organisations like ANKUR, BeyondBuilt Trust, City Sabha, and others. NIUA, in turn, can play a role as an enabler,ensuring capacity is built in the workforce across the service provision agenciesand development authorities.Youth participation is the key to securing the urban water future of Delhi,helping to design a system that is based on education, inclusive decisionmaking, and accountability on the part of the development authorities. Thefirst, prerequisite step in this quest is to coherently integrate the developmentauthority and other service provisioning agencies.REFERENCESArnstein S. R. (1969). A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Instituteof Planners, 35(4), 216–224, https://doi.org/10.1080/01944366908977225Birkinshaw M. (2018). ‘Water mafia’ politics and unruly informality in Delhi’sunauthorised colonies. In: Water, Creativity and Meaning, L. Roberts and K. Phillips(eds.), Routledge, London, pp. 188–203, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315110356Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest188 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityCordero-Vinueza V. A., Niekerk F. and van Dijk T. (2023). Making child-friendly cities:a socio-spatial literature review. Cities, 137, 104248, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2023.104248Dhar D. and Thakre M. (2020). No Child’s Play: The Enduring Challenge of CreatingChild-Friendly Cities. ORF Issue Brief No. 415, October 2020, ObserverResearch Foundation. https://www.orfonline.org/public/uploads/posts/pdf/20230515132401.pdf (accessed 16 April 2024)Dutta S. (2022). ‘Satyendar Jain calls out Haryana for not releasing ‘Delhi’s share of water’,residents suffer’. The Hindustan Times, 17 May. https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/delhi-news/minister-says-haryana-not-releasing-delhi-s-share-of-waterresidents-suffer-101652782450511.html (accessed 16 April 2024)Express News Service. (2015). ‘Dwarka plant to supply water from March 16’. The IndianExpress, 2 March. https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/dwarka-plant-tosupply-water-from-march-16/ (accessed 16 April 2024)Express News Service. (2021). ‘Delhi needs child-friendly master plan, says DCPCR’.The New Indian Express, 12 August. https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/delhi/2021/Aug/12/delhi-needs-child-friendly-master-plan-says-dcpcr-2343655.html (accessed 16 April 2024)Figueroa-Benitez A., Nagheeby M., Figueroa A. and Amezaga J. (2023). Disrupted watergovernance in the shadows: revealing the role of hidden actors in the Upper CaucaRiver Basin in Colombia. Frontiers in Water, 5, 801171, https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2023.801171Ghafoor-Zadeh D. (2023). Moving through, interacting with, and caring for the city:children’s and young people’s everyday experiences in smart cities. DigitalGeography and Society, 4, 100051, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diggeo.2023.100051Government of NCT of Delhi. (1998). The Delhi Water Board Act 1998. Department ofLaw, Justice & Legislative Affairs, Government of NCT of Delhi. No. F. 13(4)/98-LAD, 2 April 1998. https://delhijalboard.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Jalboard/generic_multiple_files/delhi_jal_board_act_1998.pdf (accessed 16 April 2024)Government of NCT of Delhi. (2023). Economic Survey of Delhi, 2022–23. PlanningDepartment, Government of NCT of Delhi. https://delhiplanning.delhi.gov.in/planning/economic-survey-delhi-2022-23 (accessed 16 April 2024)Hickman C., Marks E., Pihkala P., Clayton S., Lewandowski R. E., Mayall E. E., WrayB., Mellor C. and van Susteren L. (2021). Climate anxiety in children and youngpeople and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a globalsurvey. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(12), 863–873, https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(21)00278-3Hindustan Times. (2019). ‘Ensure Delhi child-friendly spaces in master plan draft:Rights body’. The Hindustan Times, 25 June. https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/ensure-child-friendly-spaces-in-master-plan-draft-rights-body/storylUSIT7d75KvMhTCLvlS3pK.html (accessed 16 April 2024)Kumar A. (2017). E-democracy in New Delhi Municipal Council: a case of smart cityplanning processes. In: E-Democracy for Smart Cities, T. M. Vinod Kumar (ed.),Springer, Singapore, pp. 121–142, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4035-1_4Kumar A., Vidyarthi S. and Prakash P. (2020). City Planning in India, 1947–2017, 1stedn. Routledge India, London, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003055969Kumar A., Singh N., Cooper S., Mdee A. and Singhal S. (2021). Infrastructural violence:five axes of inequities in water supply in Delhi, India. Frontiers in Water, 3, 727368,https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2021.727368Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestBarriers to collaboration 189Kumari S. and Biswas R. (2022). Decoding Delhi’s water governance through multi-levelgovernance approach. H2Open Journal, 5(4), 722–734, https://doi.org/10.2166/h2oj.2022.048Lall R., Mehra R. and Narayan M. (2023). Co-producing knowledge in action: reflectingfrom the Main Bhi Billi campaign for equitable planning in Delhi. Planning Theory,https://doi.org/10.1177/14730952231184339MainBhiDilli. (n.d.). Main Bhi Dilli: Ab Sheher Saath Banayenge (I too am Delhi. Nowwe will make a city together). Campaign homepage. https://www.mainbhidilli.com/ (accessed 16 June 2024)Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD). (2009). Fact Sheet. Slum and JJ Department,Delhi.National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA). (n.d.). Urban Youth Unit. https://niua.in/youth-unit/ (accessed 16 April 2024)Pandit C. and Biswas A. K. (2019). India’s National Water Policy: ‘Feel good’ document,nothing more. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 35(6),1015–1028, https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2019.1576509PTI. (2018). ‘Delhi-Haryana water sharing: Supreme Court slams Upper Yamuna RiverBoard’. The Indian Express, 11 May. https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/delhi-haryana-water-sharing-supreme-court-slams-upper-yamuna-riverboard-5173240/ (accessed 16 April 2024)Sarkar A. (2021). Everyday practices of urban poor to access water: evidence fromDelhi slums. In: Reflections on 21st Century Human Habitats in India, M. S.Jaglan and Rajeshwari (eds.), Springer, Singapore, pp. 371–392, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3100-9_15Silver L., Huang C. and Clancy L. (2023). Key Facts as India Surpasses China as theWorld’s Most Populous Country. Pew Research Center, 9 February. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/02/09/key-facts-as-india-surpasses-china-asthe-worlds-most-populous-country/ (accessed 16 April 2024)Singhal S. (2024). Uncovering the Silences: Environmental Knowledges in the Floodplainsof Yamuna, Delhi, Decolonial Subversions. http://decolonialsubversions.org/docs/pdfs/2024/6.1_Singhal.pdf (accessed 16 April 2024)Truelove Y. (2021). Who is the state? Infrastructural power and everyday watergovernance in Delhi. Environment and Planning C Politics and Space, 39(2), 282–299, https://doi.org/10.1177/2399654419897922UNICEF. (2022). Guidance Note: The Child Friendly Cities Initiative. UNICEF, NewYork, US. https://www.unicef.org/media/133746/file/Child-Friendly_Cities_Initiative_Guidance_Note.pdf (accessed 16 April 2024)United Nations. (2018). The World’s Cities in 2018: Data Booklet. Department ofEconomic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf (accessed 16 April 2024)United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA). (2023). State of World Population 2023:8 Billion Lives, Infinite Possibilities. UNFPA Division for Communications andStrategic Partnerships, New York, US. https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/swop23/SWOP2023-ENGLISH-230329-web.pdf (accessed 16 April 2024)World Population Review. (n.d.). Delhi Population 2024. https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/delhi-population (accessed 16 April 2024)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0191© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Neo Sau Mei and Adey Nigatu MershaPolicymakers and practitioners in the water sector generally promote policiesand plans that apparently support sustainable water resource management,but such plans and policies are often laid out without consultation with localcommunities (Berke & Conroy, 2000). This hinders effective development andimplementation. Indeed, in some cases, decision-makers have already come upwith a solution and merely seek to accommodate local people in the solutionseeking process as an afterthought, creating a deceptive picture of participationthat doesn’t tally with reality (Kumar et al., 2020). In this chapter, however,authors present case studies in which stakeholder participation has beensystematically embedded in policymaking processes through consultative andoperational frameworks in Johor, Malaysia and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, thusstrengthening collective decision-making.10.1 STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: EXPLORING MULTIPLICITY OFVALUES IN JOHOR RIVER BASIN, MALAYSIANeo Sau MeiWater management and governance is a critical issue in Malaysia (Chan, 2009;Saimy & Yusof, 2013; Woodhouse & Muller, 2017). Malaysia provides waterto 95% of its population at one of the most affordable rates globally (Chan,2009). However, there are several aspects of water governance that need to beimproved to achieve water security. Power is often overly held by governmentcontrolled, centralised departments across the water sector, requiring strongercommitment to excellent services to ensure transparency, professionalism, andaccountability (Chan, 2009; Saimy & Yusof, 2013).Chapter 10ConsultationDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest192 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityAt present, many documents and data are archived or ‘classified’ insteadof being publicly available and accessible. Transparent information-sharingmanagement is needed to promote accountability and build trust between thegovernment and community or society. Furthermore, it should be stated thatwater management authorities often overlap both within and between federaland state governments. Unfortunately, these government agencies and otherrelevant stakeholders do not coordinate effectively, decreasing accountabilityand trust in water governance. The lack of diversity and social inclusivityin decision-making processes also leads to declining interest and trust ingovernment (Chan, 2009).The situation and significance of Johor RiverThe Johor River Basin (JRB) is located in the south-east of PeninsularMalaysia and occupies approximately 14% of Johor (Shafie, 2009). It is themain river in Johor State and an essential source of freshwater for Johor andSingapore (Obaid & Shahid, 2017). In 2016, Johor ranked in the top threeamong the states in Malaysia, generating an income of RM11,406 million(around $2435 million) through domestic and international tourism (Rahman& Ching, 2020). The district of Kota Tinggi is one of the most famous andfrequently visited tourism areas in Johor (Saad et  al., 2023) – and it is anotable part of the JRB. In general, the area’s rich ecosystem, waterfalls, fireflyparks, historical tombs, museums, and royal history (as the birthplace of theJohor Dynasty) support a growing tourism industry (Hamzah et al., 2012).Demographically speaking, the communities residing in the JRB includeMalaysian, Chinese, Indian, and indigenous people. Many of them rely on theriver for their livelihoods, working as fishers, farmers, and agricultural andoil palm estate workers. These communities are not homogenous – they holddifferent social, cultural, and economic values. This is particularly true of thebasin’s indigenous people, who continue traditional practices and ways of life;although they represent a comparatively minor group within the area, theyhave a long history in the JRB. Their beliefs and culture are mostly connectedto the land and nature, and their traditions are celebrated through festivals,dance, and language.Traditionally, Malaysia has implemented top-down governance in integratedwater management (Khalid et al., 2018). However, considering the diversity ofvalues present in the JRB and the importance of the basin to a number of differentcommunities, the water sector needs to more proactively engage, include, andlisten to stakeholders and representatives from each of the communities, so asto achieve inclusivity and equality in water management decisions. The viewsand opinions of all these stakeholders are equally valuable in and necessaryto water management in practice, ensuring that comprehensive and collectivepolicies are proposed and executed. By considering diverse perspectives, wecan practise and implement inclusive decision-making processes that leadto sustainable water management solutions and ensure our research andresearch impact is not removed from the realities and lived experiences of thesehistorically marginalised communities (Choong & Neo, 2022).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConsultation 193Identifying stakeholdersAs the first step in this process, the government needed to build relationshipswith communities and gain their trust, before integrating them into the planningand management process (Di Napoli et al., 2019). Our research team initiated theengagement, acting as a bridge between community representatives and otherstakeholders. As Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) is a public, governmentbacked university, engaging with stakeholders from government agenciesand relevant government-linked industries was relatively straightforward,accomplished through meetings, emails, and regularly follow-ups onagreed actions. By comparison, establishing relationships with communityrepresentatives and non-governmental institutions was more complex, involvingmore thoughtful communication and the use of intermediaries. For example, itwas necessary to first approach the Department of Orang Asli Development(JAKOA), a department under the Ministry of Rural and Regional Developmentof Malaysia that is responsible for the welfare of the indigenous people, beforewe could reach out to indigenous populations. Researchers from UTM thenengaged in frequent visits, capacity building, and grassroot programmes, withthe aim of empowering wider communities to engage in further participatoryworkshops and activities.Only once we had studied the department, roles, and background (cultural,historical, and social) of all the relevant parties and formed a relationshipwith them through visits, meetings, interviews, and follow-up calls did webegin to bring stakeholders together. The pre-engagement stage process tooktime and resources, as it required nuanced coordination and management atmultiple levels. But in due course, stakeholders were invited to workshopsbased on assessment criteria such as availability, experience, position, andbackground. Generally, the individual stakeholders were collated into specificcategories such as government agencies, water management institutions, nongovernmental organisations, community representatives, or industries. Thediversity of categories allowed multiple perspectives to be captured in an effortto develop and co-create potential solutions.Working together across sectorsWe conducted a number of participatory workshops (Figure 10.1) with relevantstakeholders from the different categories, bringing together water managementagencies, government institutions, local authorities, and communityrepresentatives to discuss existing and emerging water security issues in theJRB. We facilitated focused and topical discussions between various partiesfrom various levels, exchanging thoughts, experiences, and ideas to improvethe basin.In addition, we hosted virtual coffees and catch-ups to provide an onlineplatform for engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic, when movementand physical interaction were restricted. The virtual coffee concept is inspiredby the World Café method (Brown & Isaacs, 2005), which has been widelyadopted across multiple disciplines (Chang & Chen, 2015; Fouché & Light,2010; Fullarton & Palermo, 2008; Ritch & Brennan, 2010): the rationale of thisDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest194 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitymethod is to provide an opportunity for communities to express their viewsfreely in a relaxed and comfortable virtual space. It represents an innovativeengagement approach to build rapport and maintain trust between the researchteam and the communities.Furthermore, community representatives from nine villages in the JRB,including indigenous villages, were invited to separate sessions to participatein a small-scale, focused discussion of water security challenges as wellas of the potential solutions to these issues. These dialogues revealed thechallenges facing communities living in the JRB, including but not limited towater pollution, loss of biodiversity, loss of food sources, and flash flooding.We also uncovered potential causes of these issues, such as outdated lawsand regulations, overlapping power between governing institutions, weakenforcement by authorities, insufficient financial and human resources, andpoliticisation of the sector. While the water management authorities were likelyalready aware of some of these issues (e.g. the lack of staff to monitor waterquality), these dialogues helped those ‘in charge’ to understand the impactand lived experiences of those for whom the river is both home and livelihood(Figure 10.2).ConclusionIn conclusion, the stakeholder engagement process has provided more thanjust a platform for the communities to voice their concerns; it ensures theirvoices have been heard by those who have decision-making power. This processhas empowered communities through collective and collaborative discussionso that their voices are integrated into strategic planning processes. Bringingcommunity voices into dialogue with traditional top-down approaches to watermanagement and governance has brought about a wider paradigm shift, asdiverse perspectives have been incorporated into the decision-making process,influencing potential outcomes through the subsequent development of thestrategic plan.The strategic plan represents an important milestone in the evolution andadaptation from exploratory to action-based research. We still have a long wayFigure 10.1 Photographs of the stakeholder dialogues in Senai, Johor, 2019. (Credit: NeoSau Mei).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConsultation 195 Figure 10.2 The process of connecting and engaging with stakeholders to co-create solutions during collaborative workshops and activities.1 (Credit: rootsandwings.design). 1 The steps articulated in the figure are as follows: (1) Identify the stakeholders who should be involved in co-creating water security solutions by department, role, and background. (2) Build trust and relationships with stakeholders through visits, meetings, and interviews. (3) Stakeholders are grouped according to their experience, position, and background, and invited to contribute to our research, taking part in collaborative workshops and activities.(4) Researchers and stakeholders work together to co-create and develop water security solutions through collaborative andparticipatory methods.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest196 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityto go. However, these co-creation initiatives are crucial in creating the spacefor sustainable, long-term collaboration and maintaining momentum in theshift towards transparent, accountable, and inclusive water management. Thisongoing collaboration in the JRB will also serve as a useful foundation andreference point for future engagement.10.2 PARTICIPATORY SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT FOR WATERALLOCATION MODELLING AND SUSTAINABLE WATERMANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIAAdey Nigatu MershaGlobal water demand is expected to continue rising, driven by populationgrowth, socio-economic development, and changing consumption patterns(Huang et  al., 2021; van Vliet et  al., 2021). Recent United Nations reportsindicate that the global freshwater demand will increase by about 30% by 2050,surpassing the available water supply by 40% by 2030 – and all of this willbe exacerbated by the impact of climate change on water availability (UNEP,2017). In short, the issue of water scarcity is expected to worsen. The greatestchance to improve water security lies in managing water demand across allsectors, but particularly in agriculture, which is the largest water user globally(Mekonnen & Gerbens-Leenes, 2020; UNEP, 2017).Given how little we know at present about socio-ecological systems’ potentialresponses to key stressors and management interventions, planners areincreasingly using scenario-based simulations to support risk-based planningand establish proactive systems of water management (Dong et al., 2013; Speedet al., 2013). A range of simulation models can study water resource planningand management issues in river basins in a way that enables stakeholders tobe actively involved in the planning and decision-making process. This studyuses the Water Evaluation and Planning system (WEAP), as it simulateswater systems and policies in a comprehensive and integrated manner, beingdesigned as a comparative analysis tool. It has accordingly been referred to as alaboratory for examining and evaluating a full range of water development andmanagement options (Yates et al., 2005).Although scenario methods have been widely applied in risk-basedassessments of water resource systems, there has not been per se clearoperational methodology or procedure defined on how the alternative scenariosare developed. Rather they are simply assumed, and the necessary participatoryprocesses followed in their design are not clearly traceable (Mahmoud et al.,2009). The need for a methodological guideline for participatory scenariodevelopment (PSD) is of a paramount importance in order to ensure a clearsystem definition and representation in modelling water resources systems.The practical methodological progress in scenarios representation shouldresult from adaptive courses of action integrating enough flexibility to adaptmodels to diverse social, economic, and policy contexts, and ultimately result ina comprehensive suite of strategies and action pathways for sustainable waterallocation and management.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConsultation 197Participatory scenario developmentPSD is an interdisciplinary and operational process for crafting variousnarratives about what the future may hold with regard to water availabilityconditions and management requirements. PSD enables a clearer and collectiveunderstanding of water systems’ key processes; it thus underpins the assessmentof the impacts of development and changing natural conditions on the futureavailability of water resources. It also strengthens strategic decision-making, bysupporting the development of a well-informed hydrological modelling tool, asa common platform to combine natural and biophysical elements of the waterresource system with that of the socio-economic processes for a context-basedreasoning tailored to specific local needs By representing the water system ina multivalent and holistic way, PSD explores issues related to water allocationand management, along with a set of plausible adaptation options for a practicalrepresentation of the systems dynamics in model-based analysis to guide waterresources management in an equitable, efficient, and sustainable manner. ThePSD process outlined in this study was informed by the views of stakeholders(see ‘Case study’ section), as well as by concepts and processes from previousrelated studies, such as Dong et al. (2013), Mahmoud et al. (2009), OcampoMelgar et al. (2022), Speed et al. (2013), and Weng et al. (2010).Six key stages of the PSD processCategorisation of scenariosIn defining and categorising scenarios for water allocation planning, four keyquestions first need to be answered: what do past trends show? How does thecurrent situation perform? What is the likely future situation? How can weshape or inform the future situation?From these questions, scenarios can be categorised as:(I) The situation as it currently exists – representing the ‘business-as-usual’scenario, assuming no major change is introduced into the currentsystem. This is a reference setting or baseline scenario against whichlikely future situations are measured, compared, and evaluated.(II) Intervention scenarios – these refer to future situations where thereare changes in water use and management as well as availabilityconditions. Intervention scenarios are further categorised based on:(i) likely changes in socio-economic conditions for example policychanges, development plans and ambitions, population growth, andurbanisation; (ii) changing natural circumstances for example changingrainfall patterns and climate in general; and (iii) changing managementpractices for example efficiency measures, supply management, watertransfers, and environmental goals.The status quo and setting of objectivesHere, we define the context and characterise the water system in terms ofbiophysical and socio-economic processes. We define clear objectives forscenario development and for the overall water allocation planning process,considering context-relevant scopes and spatio-temporal boundary conditions.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest198 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityPossible objectives of water allocation scenario analysis could include: toensure sustainable water use and management; to enhance equitability andinclusivity; to serve ecological management and conservation; or to enhancewater productivity. Goals, meanwhile, could be to enhance livelihoods,economic development, or community well-being as a whole.The engagement of stakeholdersThis stage systematically identifies relevant stakeholders to ensure that they areparticipating throughout the process. With this in mind, researchers will guideparticipation (through data acquisition and validation), co-develop knowledgeand build capacity (through training, discussions, and idea exchange on keyresearch processes and findings), and establish discussion platforms (such asfocus groups, as well as consultative and dissemination workshops) aimed atincluding diverse perspectives and uncovering hidden voices related to waterallocation.Identification of major problems and drivers of changeThis stage is aimed at developing a thorough characterisation of critical systemgaps and their consequences in terms of water allocation and management aswell as resource suitability. And having identified the problems, we can thencollaboratively trace their sources (i.e. major drivers of change that have led tothe identified water use and management issues) and classify them according totheir degree of influence.Analysis of possible intervention options (adaptation measures)Next, we identify and prioritise possible intervention options to supportequitable, efficient, and environmentally sustainable water use andmanagement. The exploration and analysis of the management/adaptationoptions can be procedurally categorised into three major areas of action: (i)supply-side interventions; (ii) demand-side interventions; and (iii) policy-basedinterventions.Scenario definitionThe final step is to formulate cause-and-effect relationships between thedifferent context-relevant drivers of change and their impact on future wateravailability, based on the various scenario storylines. To do this, the assumedchanging circumstances will be organised along with their consequencesand possible sets of responses to generate a set of plausible future scenariostorylines perceivably representing a range of potential futures based ondifferent combinations of the identified key driving forces. Thus, we can explorea spectrum of likely situations. The scenario narratives will then take shapeas a sequence of events or a synopsis of a possible course of action or eventscollating the information examined in relevance with the identified problems,the drivers of changes, and possible ways to address anticipated risks. Figure10.3 presents a framework delineating a step-by-step process for PSD thatsupports water resource planning and policymaking.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConsultation 199Figure 10.3 A step-by-step process for PSD. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest200 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityPost-PSD: application of scenarios for strategic planningOnce the PSD process has enabled the definition of the scenarios, there arethree further steps (Figure 10.4):Scenario specification and quantificationHere, we assign indicative quantitative attributes for each set of scenario optionsand intervention measures to substantiate the proposed scenario storylines,before they are integrated into the numerical (hydrologic model-based)analysis in terms of their implications for water demand, water availability,socio-economic development, societal well-being, and general health of theecosystem.Scenario simulation and evaluationNext, we integrate the quantified and qualified scenarios into the hypotheticalcatchment characterisation to project future trends concerning developmentand water availability conditions. This enables us to analyse the trade-offs,risks, and benefits associated with each of the options. Feedback sessionswith relevant groups enable us to refine the outputs and scenarios and therebyenhance the relevance and precision of the scenarios analysis for effective riskbased planning.Communicate results of scenario evaluation and systems analysisFinally, we disseminate the results to key stakeholders including decisionmakers, development planners, and local communities, with the aim of informingsectoral policies and water management strategies. This communicationalso helps to maintain stakeholder engagement, strengthening collaborativeefforts in the service of proactive management. Ultimately, it is hoped that thiswill create a planning process that is responsive to changing circumstances,ensuring water security and sustainable development.Figure 10.4 Post-PSD process: application of PSD for water resource planning. (Credit:rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConsultation 201Case studyThis methodological framework was developed and tested with the participationof diverse stakeholders in the Central Rift Valley sub-basin. The Central RiftValley is one of the most hydrologically vulnerable areas of Ethiopia, located inthe dynamic system of the Great East African Rift Valley (Bantider et al., 2023;Mersha et al., 2023).In this context, a combination of methods was employed to build understandingand guide the PSD process, including desktop research, stakeholder mapping,participatory planning and data collection, and stakeholder consultations,interviews, and group discussions. In these group discussions and activities,researchers guided stakeholders in a step-by-step manner to explore thefuture situation in a realistic and policy-relevant way. Key drivers of change(categorised into natural and anthropogenic) as well as possible adaptationoptions were explored. And we made sure to discuss possible interventionsand outcomes, allowing for socio-economic aspects of water management andallocation planning to be captured. Table 10.1 summarises the results of theTable 10.1 Results of the PSD process: problems, drivers, and options. (Credit: AdeyNigatu Mersha).Problem Definition Drivers ofChangeAdaptation OptionsBiodiversitydegradationClimatic extremesDeforestationInefficient water useLack of ownership,awarenessLack of water pricesLand degradationLimited data andinformationPollutionSalinitySedimentationSoil erosionWater scarcityWater tabledepletionWaterbornediseasesWetlandsencroachmentClimate changeHydrologicalhazardsIndustrialisationIrrigationexpansionLack ofcross-sectorcollaborationLack of landuse plans andpoliciesPolicy andinstitutionalgapsPollutionPopulationgrowthRainfallshortagesOvergrazingUrbanisationMismanagementAgronomic measuresClimate-smartagricultureClimate-resilientgreen economyConjunctive wateruseEnhanced awarenessEnvironmental flowsGroundwaterrecharge (artificial)Improvedconveyance systemImproved irrigationefficiencyImprovedmanagementprocessesPrecision agricultureProtectionof wetlands,riverbanks, andbuffer zonesRainwaterharvestingSpring developmentStorage structures/dams/reservoirsStormwatermanagementStronger and morecapable institutionsStronger licensingand regulationsStronger policiesand plansWater harvestingand reuseWater pollutioncontrolWater pricing andtariffsWater rightsrecognisedWatershedmanagementUse of indigenousand local knowledgeDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest202 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityparticipatory scenario development process including the identification of keyproblems, the major drivers of change, and suggested adaptation options.The results of the PSD were then applied in an ongoing water allocationmodelling process for the sub-basin (Figure 10.5). The variables used to definemetrics against the values of the different scenarios in the WEAP modellingplatform include demand-side savings, loss and reuse, supply augmentation,and demand sites’ priority for supply. Likewise, the set of evaluation criteriabuilt in the WEAP model, such as water demand, supply delivered, unmetdemand, and streamflow at selected stretches of the river, were set to measurethe performance of scenarios and to prioritise accordingly.The scenarios and test results were subsequently validated in another multistakeholder workshop (Figure 10.6). Researchers facilitated a feedback processthrough a series of active group discussions that took place in breakawayFigure 10.5 Results of the PSD process: scenarios in the WEAP model. (Credit: AdeyNigatu Mersha).Figure 10.6 Results of the PSD process: validating scenarios through participatoryquantification. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConsultation 203settings as well as reflection sessions, where we asked stakeholders to verify theplausibility of the applied framework for long-term water resource planning.ConclusionA methodical PSD approach and the integration of the resulting scenarios intohydrologic modelling tools enables risk-based assessment for a more holisticpicture of water resource systems and the diverse implications of global changeprocesses on multiple system variables. In the past, formulation of scenariosfor representation of future development and adaptation options in hydrologicmodelling operations for water demand–supply analysis and water allocationplanning have often relied on top-down assumptions, without the participationof the target communities and stakeholders. This particular case study hasshown that it is, in fact, crucial to include such stakeholders: water resourcedecision-making requires careful, meticulous, and participatory processes,such that planning contexts are well understood and the views and interestsof diverse stakeholders are represented in the analysis and related basin-widedecisions. However, the limitations of this participatory process might be therequired level of representation of the diverse stakeholders in a way that allvoices are heard and that ‘no one is left behind’. This requires a critical andcomprehensive mapping of stakeholders, identifying the respective levels andstages of participation in the participatory systems modelling process as well assufficient time and logistical arrangements.REFERENCESBantider A., Tadesse B., Mersha A. N., Zeleke G., Alemayehu T., Nagheeby M. andAmezaga J. (2023). Voices in shaping water governance: exploring discourses in theCentral Rift Valley, Ethiopia. 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From Exploratory Research to Action Research:Co-Creation Workshop to Resolve the Johor River-Related Issues Among theStakeholders. Paper presentation, World Social Marketing Conference, 5–7September, Brighton, UK.Di Napoli I., Dolce P. and Arcidiacono C. (2019). Community trust: a social indicatorrelated to community engagement. Social Indicators Research, 145(2), 551–579,https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-019-02114-yDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest204 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityDong C., Schoups G. and van de Giesen N. (2013). Scenario development for waterresource planning and management: A review. Technological Forecasting andSocial Change, 80(4), 749–761, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2012.09.015Fouché C. and Light G. (2010). An invitation to dialogue: ‘The World Cafe’ insocial work research. Qualitative Social Work, 10(1), 28–48, https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325010376016Fullarton C. and Palermo J. (2008). Evaluation of a large group method in an educationalinstitution: The World Café versus large group facilitation. Journal of InstitutionalResearch, 14(1), 109–117. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1055582.pdf (accessed16 April 2024)Hamzah J., Habibah A., Buang A., Jusoff K., Toriman M. E., Mohd Fuad M. J., Er A.C. and Azima A. M. (2012). Flood disaster, impacts and the tourism providers’responses: The Kota Tinggi experience. Advances in Natural and Applied Sciences,6(1), 26–32. https://www.aensiweb.com/old/anas/2012/26-32.pdf (accessed 16April 2024)Huang Z., Yuan X. and Liu X. (2021). The key drivers for the changes in global waterscarcity: water withdrawal versus water availability. Journal of Hydrology, 601,126658, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126658Khalid R. M., Mokhtar M. B., Jalil F., Ab Rahman S. and Spray C. (2018). Legal framingfor achieving ‘good ecological status’ for Malaysian rivers: are there lessons to belearned from the EU Water Framework Directive? Ecosystem Services, 29, part B,251–259, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.06.015Kumar A., Vidyarthi S. and Prakash P. (2020). City Planning in India, 1947–2017. 1stedn, Routledge India, London, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003055969Mahmoud M., Liu Y., Hartmann H., Stewart S., Wagener T., Semmens D., StewartR., Gupta H., Dominguez D., Dominguez F., Hulse D., Letcher R., Rashleigh B.,Smith C., Street R., Ticehurst J., Twery M., van Delden H., Waldick R., White D.and Winter L. (2009). A formal framework for scenario development in supportof environmental decision-making. Environmental Modelling & Software, 24(7),798–808, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2008.11.010Mekonnen M. M. and Gerbens-Leenes W. (2020). The water footprint of global foodproduction. Water, 12(10), 2696, https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102696Mersha A. N., Bantider A., Alamirew T., Alemayehu T. and Zeleke G. (2023). WaterResources Management and Use in the Central Rift Valley Basin, Ethiopia.Working Paper No. 6, Water and Land Resources Centre, Addis Ababa University,Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. https://wlrc-eth.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/WaterResources-Management-and-use-in-the-CRV.pdf (accessed 17 April 2024)Obaid H. A. and Shahid S. (2017). Soil erosion susceptibility of Johor River basin. Waterand Environment Journal, 31(3), 367–374, https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12252Ocampo-Melgar A., Barría P., Chadwick C. and Rivas C. (2022). Cooperation underconflict: participatory hydrological modeling for science policy dialogues for theAculeo Lake. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 26(19), 5103–5118, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-5103-2022Rahman S. and Ching G. H. (2020). Tourism in Johor and its potential. In: Johor – Abodeof Development?, F. E. Hutchinson and S. Rahman (eds.), ISEAS Publishing,Singapore, pp. 183–202, https://doi.org/10.1355/9789814881289-016Ritch E. L. and Brennan C. (2010). Using World Café and drama to explore older people’sexperience of financial products and services. International Journal of ConsumerStudies, 34(4), 405–411, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00881.xSaad M., Husin N. A., Rosman S. N. H., Husain R. and Abdul Latif @ Bapoo L. (2023).The nexus of community perception on turning idyllic Panchor town into a futureDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConsultation 205river tourism destination. Cogent Social Sciences, 9(2), 2253021, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2253021Saimy I. S. and Yusof N. A. M. (2013). The need for better water policy and governancein Malaysia. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 81, 371–375, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.445Shafie A. (2009) Extreme Flood Event: A Case Study on Floods of 2006 and 2007 in Johor,Malaysia. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado StateUniversity, Fort Collins, Colorado, US. https://www.engr.colostate.edu/∼pierre/ce_old/Projects/linkfiles/Atikah%20Shafie%20Johor_final_121009.pdf (accessed6 June 2024)Speed R., Yuanyuan L., Le Quesne T., Pegram G. and Zhiwei Z. (2013). Basin WaterAllocation Planning: Principles, Procedures and Approaches for Basin AllocationPlanning. UNESCO, Paris. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000220875(accessed 6 June 2024)UN Environment Programme (UNEP) (2017). UN Environment Annual Report 2017.https://www.unep.org/resources/un-environment-annual-report-2017 (accessed 17April 2024)van Vliet M. T., Jones E. R., Flörke M., Franssen W. H. P., Hanasaki N., Wada Y. andYearsley J. R. (2021). Global water scarcity including surface water quality andexpansions of clean water technologies. Environmental Research Letters, 16(2),024020, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abbfc3Weng S. Q., Huang G. H. and Li Y. P. (2010). An integrated scenario-based multi-criteriadecision support system for water resources management and planning: a casestudy in the Haihe River Basin. Expert Systems with Applications, 37(12), 8242–8254, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2010.05.061Woodhouse P. and Muller M. (2017). Water governance: an historical perspective oncurrent debates. World Development, 92, 225–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.11.014Yates D., Sieber J., Purkey D. N. and Huber-Lee A. (2005). WEAP21: a demand-, priority-,and preference-driven water planning model. Water International, 30(4), 487–500,https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060508691893Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0207© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Zulfaqar Sa’adi, Prabhakar Shukla, Likimyelesh Nigussie andTilaye Worku BekeleMany water bodies around the world remain blighted by a lack of availableinformation and regular monitoring, making it difficult to identify change anddiscover early signs of water-related hazards and threats to people’s lives andlivelihoods. Citizen science has a great potential to fill these data gaps (Babisoet  al., 2023). Researchers can work with communities to enable citizens tocollect and manage their own data, gaining important information for modelvalidation while also empowering locals to engage in decisions about watermanagement. In this chapter, authors present case studies that demonstrate themultiple benefits of citizen science, from enhancing community understandingof their environment to resolving data gaps for risk assessment and modelling,leading to better decision-making.111.1 EDUCATION-DRIVEN CROWD-BASED RAINFALL OBSERVATIONIN JOHOR RIVER BASIN, MALAYSIAZulfaqar Sa’adiIn the context of Malaysia, the Johor River Basin (JRB) plays a pivotal rolein supporting diverse ecosystems, agriculture, and urban centres (Sa’adi et al.,2024a). Given its significance, accurate and timely monitoring of rainfall in thisregion is essential for effective water resource management, flood prediction,and infrastructure planning (Fairudz Jamaluddin et al., 2022). Traditionally,Chapter 11Citizen science1 There are many different levels of participation within different models of citizenscience. We recommend Wolff (2021) for types of people-centred approaches to floodrisk reduction, and Haklay (2013) for an overview and typology of participation.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest208 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitymeteorological data collection has been the domain of government agenciesand meteorological stations, employing sophisticated instruments andadvanced technologies. However, the limitations of these centralised systems,including sparse spatial coverage and high operational costs, have spurredthe exploration of alternative methodologies. Crowd-based data collection,leveraging the ubiquity of smartphones and the enthusiasm of the public,presents an innovative way to overcome these limitations (Araujo et al., 2020;van Emmerik et al., 2020).Crowd-based rainfall observations can complement existing monitoringnetworks and facilitate data collection in regions where data might otherwisebe unavailable. To this end, we created the RainCrowd project. RainCrowd useseducation and citizen science for continuous rainfall observations, capturingboth qualitative and quantitative spatio-temporal information relatingto rainfall events in the JRB. Physical sessions for this project were held atRecreational Forest located within the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM),involving 16 students and eight teachers, who collected data from January toMarch 2024. Then, various high schools, situated in the JRB, were carefullychosen to ensure the collected data aligned with the specific environmentalcontext of the JRB. Involving the local community in this activity promotesengagement, empowerment, and education, giving students the valuableopportunity to learn about climate change, data collection, and citizen scienceprocesses.Developing the module and resourceIt is crucial to shore up the educational aspect of a citizen science project beforeembarking on data collection, because it ensures that participants have thenecessary knowledge and skills to effectively contribute to scientific endeavours(Lüsse et al., 2022). RainCrowd, for example, aims to train students to becomecitizen scientists, who can play an important, long-term part in collecting rainfalldata. To that end, we developed Sahabat Air, a learning module and educationalresource. The citizen science monitoring method is introduced as a key part ofthe module, encouraging community involvement and ensuring participantsunderstand the active role they can play in addressing climate change. Thismodule was specifically prepared for high school students, but it is applicable toindividuals of all ages. The theoretical component of the course was deliveredonline, while the practical component of the course was delivered offline, toensure participants were confident in their ability to apply their knowledge andcontribute to the citizen science rainfall monitoring process. The course wastailored to the conditions of the JRB, which experiences increasingly frequent,intense rainfall, with over 41% of days of rain annually (Sa’adi et al., 2024b)(Figure 11.1).These courses enabled participants to enhance their understanding of thefundamental concepts and frameworks of climate change, facilitating moreeffective and informed engagement in subsequent citizen science activities.It was evident that certain terms commonly associated with climate changerequired clarification, such as the distinction between ‘weather’ and ‘climate’,the disparity between ‘climate change’ and ‘climate change impact’, andDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCitizen science 209 Figure 11.1 Educational activities delivered online and offline with participants from selected high schools. (Credit: Zulfaqar Sa’adi).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest210 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitythe connection between ‘global warming’ and ‘climate change’. Answeringquestions and clarifying key concepts during the course helped to preventpotential misinterpretation, ensuring participants shared a common baselineunderstanding. Consequently, this preparation not only enhanced the qualityof data collection and interpretation but also fostered greater engagement withand deeper understanding of the project’s objectives and outcomes amongparticipants. We also made sure to employ the Malay language across theeducational and citizen science platforms to ensure accessibility, inclusivity,and cultural relevance for the local community, while also promoting thenational language and identity.The challenges of community-generated dataRainCrowd relies on data submitted by users and the community. However,users only have limited information on how to maximise the delivery of highquality scientific observations: there is currently a lack of comprehensiveguidance or strategies to help users optimise the accuracy and reliability oftheir contributions. This gap in information raises questions about how toeffectively standardise data collection methods, validate observations, andminimise potential biases or inaccuracies inherent in citizen science initiatives.In addition, it is crucial to involve and retain a wide range of citizenscientists for data collection, but this can also represent the biggest challenge forprojects involving citizen scientists (Arienzo et al., 2021). Recruiting a diverse,representative, yet qualified group of participants can be tricky, especially ifthe project requires specialised knowledge or skills. Additionally, maintainingparticipants’ interest and motivation over time may be difficult, particularly ifthe project is lengthy or if volunteers encounter obstacles or frustrations duringdata collection (Paul et al., 2020). Furthermore, ensuring the data collected bycitizen scientists is both high-quality and reliable can be a major challenge (Njueet al., 2019). Without proper training, guidance, and support, participants mayinadvertently introduce errors or biases into their observations, compromisingthe integrity of the data (Fraisl et al., 2022). Added to this, without adequatemechanisms for validation and quality control, it can be challenging to assessthe accuracy and consistency of citizen-generated data.The benefits of community-generated dataAs a result, the citizen science project in the JRB is closely tied to the Sahabat Airprogramme, which facilitates consistent and close participation of researchersat UTM alongside citizen scientists (who are themselves continuously trainedto improve their data collection techniques). The citizen scientists are thenempowered to collect and translate local rainfall data through the RainCrowdplatform, which offers a plethora of beneficial features, particularly in enrichingrainfall data and engaging its participants. Firstly, it provides continuouseducation about climate science and rainfall monitoring, enabling ongoinglearning and knowledge dissemination in the community. Additionally, selftraining online tutorials are available on the platform, equipping participantswith the necessary skills and knowledge to contribute effectively to theDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCitizen science 211project. One of RainCrowd’s key strengths is its inclusivity, as it is accessible toindividuals of all ages, encouraging diverse participation.Moreover, the project collects both quantitative and qualitative data toenrich the understanding of local rainfall patterns. Qualitative data, likeperceptions of rainfall events, including observations on intensity, timing, andimpacts, complements numerical rainfall data, offering contextual insights intohow rainfall events are experienced by the community. It also enables real-timereporting of rainfall observations, facilitating prompt responses and action ifnecessary.Finally, RainCrowd supplements data from existing rain gauges, enhancingthe accuracy and reliability of rainfall measurements – indeed, its data can beused for rainfall station validation. What’s more, participants can contributeadditional data such as the timing and frequency of rainfall, specific locations,and observations on wind, lightning, cloud cover, rainbows, and othermeteorological phenomena, further enriching the dataset.ConclusionRainCrowd serves as a valuable platform for community engagement, education,and the collection of comprehensive rainfall data for various purposes,including quantitative and qualitative data collection, real-time flood reporting,enhanced understanding of rainfall events through individual perception, andvalidation of station data, as demonstrated by Figure 11.2. For the rainfallevent described in this figure, multiple people in close proximity submittedobservations, thus improving spatial coverage, validating local station data,and increasing confidence in the findings. With the option to make rainfallobservations over a predetermined period ranging from one month to sixmonths, citizen scientists can significantly contribute to enhancing the qualityof rainfall data collected in their locality. This data can then complementand enrich existing datasets, ultimately serving the interests of relevant localstakeholders. The results of citizen science approaches to rainfall monitoringare encouraging, indicating that RainCrowd is a promising way to supplementexisting observation networks and obtain valuable data.The ongoing collaboration with the Johor Educational Department willalso help to train additional citizen scientists from various educational levels,including primary school, high school, and tertiary institutions. This willfacilitate broader citizen science data collection efforts nationwide. RainCrowdcontinues to evolve to support its own sustainability, now offering a new moduledesigned to train the trainers themselves: this module will focus on equippingselected individuals with the necessary knowledge, skills, and resources toeffectively train new participants in using RainCrowd for rainfall monitoring.Thus, the project empowers people to educate and support others in becomingcitizen scientists.As climate change increasingly impacts weather patterns, the need fordecentralised and community-driven rainfall observation approaches isbecoming ever more apparent. This is because such approaches focus ongathering localised data and insights, which are essential for understandingand responding to the evolving impacts of climate change at the communityDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest212 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitylevel. RainCrowd’s inclusion of a self-training element ensures the longevityof this approach, while also contributing to the growing body of literatureon crowd-based rainfall monitoring. This underscores the potential synergybetween education, public engagement, and scientific data collection, all ofwhich are crucial aspects to consider when addressing the complex challengesof water resource management amid a changing climate.11.2 LEVERAGING CITIZEN SCIENCE FOR URBAN FLOODMANAGEMENT IN NCT DELHI, INDIA: THE AAB PRAHARI APPPrabhakar ShuklaUrban flooding in the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi is a multifacetedchallenge impacted by rapid urbanisation, inadequate drainage systems, andthe escalating effects of climate change (Kumar, 2023). The city’s low-lyingareas, often densely populated, are particularly vulnerable, experiencingfrequent waterlogging and infrastructure damage during heavy rainfall events.And in the context of Delhi, the current approach to flooding revolves aroundreactive measures rather than proactive prevention. Authorities primarilyfocus on clearing drainage systems, desilting water bodies, and deployingpumps during heavy rainfall events – but this approach is insufficient due toFigure 11.2 The RainCrowd interface, YouTube tutorial, and the output prompted fromqualitative and quantitative rainfall monitoring based on citizen science in the JRB. (Credit:Zulfaqar Sa’adi).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCitizen science 213several factors. Firstly, urbanisation and improper land use planning have ledto increased surface runoff, exacerbating flooding risks. Compounding this,there is a lack of real-time data on rainfall intensity, water levels, and drainagecapacity, hindering timely and effective decision-making. Without accurateand up-to-date information, authorities struggle to anticipate and respondpromptly to flooding events, resulting in inadequate measures and inefficientresource allocation. In short, the absence of real-time data severely impactsthe authorities’ ability to mitigate flood impacts and safeguard the city’sinfrastructure and residents.To address this complex issue, a comprehensive approach that integratesimproved drainage infrastructure, sustainable urban planning practices, andcitizen science for improved flood management strategies is needed. In responseto this urgent need, we developed a pioneering mobile application called ‘AABPrahari’ (DD News, 2022) that uses citizen observations and crowdsourceddata to enhance existing datasets.In the specific context of Delhi, citizen science plays a crucial role in watermanagement due to the city’s complex urban environment and the challengesit faces with regard to water quality, availability, and flooding. In creating acitizen science app, we aimed to leverage technology and public participationto address water issues (including urban flooding and solid waste management)effectively. This initiative is significant as it enables anyone with a smartphone to contribute to data collection, allowing for a more comprehensiveunderstanding of the city’s flooding dynamics, such as spatial distribution. TheAAB Prahari app represents a novel approach to Delhi’s water managementlandscape: for the data gatherer, through the integration of advanced technologyand user-friendly features; and for the data analyser, through the creation of acentralised platform for data collection, integration, and processing.The AAB Prahari app for real-time flood reporting was created through acollaboration between the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD) and theDelhi Jal Board, as an endeavour to bridge data gaps in official records, as existingdata often fails to capture real-time information crucial for effective floodresponse. Alongside the app, we introduced awareness campaigns to engagecitizen scientists: these campaigns aimed to provide information about theapp’s functionalities, its importance in flood monitoring, and how participationcould contribute to improved flood management. Feedback from users waspromising, indicating their willingness to engage with the app and their overallcomprehension of the purpose of data collection. Subsequent efforts to enhanceusers’ awareness of how their contributions directly influence flood responsestrategies are ongoing – this is essential for sustaining user engagement andensuring the app’s continued effectiveness in supplementing formal reportingto generate a timely flood response.The app was officially launched in September 2022. Anyone can downloadthe app, which uses a citizen science approach that encourages individuals toreport real-time flooding incidents (Figure 11.3).Through the app, users can capture and send detailed information, includingphotos and the depth of flooding at specific locations, with location data(latitude and longitude) automatically geotagged, to a central server. ThisDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest214 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitycrowdsourced data assists water authorities to develop and deploy an earlywarning system for urban floods through validation of IITD’s hydraulic model.In addition, the citizen observations, comprising pictures and measurementson the Jalsuraksha server (Jalsuraksha, 2023), enable authorities to promptlyassess the situation and implement effective response measures, such asimproved drainage infrastructure through the deployment of pumps.Figure 11.4 illustrates flooding incidents reported by users through theAAB Prahari app. Incidents were reported at over 100 locations, indicatingthat Delhi experienced numerous high-intensity rainy days in July (19.5 mm),August (18 mm), September (64.5 mm), and October (76 mm).The AAB Prahari app represents a significant advancement in urbanflood management, offering a platform for public participation and providingvaluable insights into the frequency, severity, and location of flooding incidents.Engaging citizens in flood management efforts, as this app does, yields severalbenefits for different stakeholders.Firstly, for app users, participation in flood management through citizenobservations fosters greater awareness of their environment and helps themto understand flood risks. Secondly, for researchers, citizen science-generateddata enriches research endeavours by providing real-time, ground-level insightsinto flooding patterns, impacts, and vulnerabilities. This crowdsourced dataimproves understanding of flood dynamics and informs the development ofmore effective mitigation strategies. Thirdly, for authorities, citizen engagementcan improve flooding responses, as the information gathered via the appsupplements official data to enable more comprehensive and timely decisionmaking, as well as better resource allocation, response effort prioritisation,and communication with affected areas, ultimately enhancing the overalleffectiveness of flood management initiatives in Delhi.Figure 11.3 Flow diagram illustrating the AAB Prahari app. (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCitizen science 215Various authorities, including the Irrigation and Flood Control Departmentand the Public Works Department of NCT Delhi alongside the Delhi JalBoard, have acknowledged the utility of the app in providing real-time data onflood incidents. They have subsequently committed to integrating it into theirresponse protocols.For those considering developing a citizen science-based flood reportingapp for their city, key lessons from our experience creating the AAB Prahariapp include that it’s crucial to involve government agencies, researchers, andthe local community from the outset, ensuring support and buy-in. Awarenesscampaigns are also essential to facilitate reliable data collection and promotecommunity efforts. Technological features such as real-time data collectionand GIS mapping enhance the app’s effectiveness, while transparency andcredibility build trust with authorities. Finally, customising solutions to thelocal context ensures relevance and applicability, ultimately contributing tomore effective flood management strategies on a local and a global scale.211.3 COMMUNITY-BASED FLOOD EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS IN THEAKAKI CATCHMENT, ETHIOPIALikimyelesh Nigussie and Tilaye Worku BekeleFloods were responsible for 44% of natural hazard-related disasters from2000–2019. Floods impacted the highest number of people – 1.6 billion2 With thanks to Sandhya Rao.Figure 11.4 An illustration of flooding incidents reported by citizens through the AABPrahari app in Jalsuraksha server. (Credit: Prabhakar Shukla).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest216 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityglobally (41% of the total number of people affected by disasters) – and arethe most common type of disaster, averaging 163 events per year (CRED andUNDRR, 2020). Vulnerable populations are at the highest risk from floodsdue to socio-economic, political, and social inequalities, as well as a lack ofeffective adaptation measures (Ngcamu, 2023). As such, effective response tofuture flood disasters will rely on the implementation of strategies that focuson risk prevention, vulnerability reduction, and preparedness, particularly invulnerable communities (IFRC, 2020).Early warning systems (EWS) play a crucial role in disaster risk management,particularly in mitigating the impact of floods. The United Nations Office forDisaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) defines EWS as a set of capacities, data,information, and knowledge that allows individuals and communities exposedto hazards to prepare and evacuate in an appropriate manner and in adequatetime to reduce the likelihood of loss of life, personal injury, losses, and damages(UNDRR, 2009). According to the UNDRR Sendai Framework (UNDRR, 2015),EWS should have four complementary elements: risk knowledge, monitoring,communication of warnings, and response capability.Communicating flood risk in the AkakiThe Akaki, a headwater catchment in Ethiopia’s Awash Basin, is prone toflooding due to factors like low elevation, overcrowding, inadequate drainagesystems, and rapid housing development (Feyissa et  al., 2018). At-riskcommunities, including low-income residents in informal settlements with poorconditions, face significant economic and social difficulties, including loss oflife, property, livestock, and farmland, as well as related mental stress (Feyissaet al., 2018).Various government agencies implement formal flood EWS to protectat-risk communities from flood damage. Specifically, the Addis Ababa Waterand Sewerage Authority (AAWSA) disseminates early warning informationabout the release of water from the Legedadi reservoir, while the EthiopianMeteorology Institute (EMI) disseminates rainfall forecasts using one-waycommunication channels (such as radio and television). However, technocentric, top-down EWS are often ineffective and fail to deliver reliable warninginformation to at-risk communities (Canwat, 2023). This is due to severalreasons including (i) a lack of details regarding the timing and magnitude ofpotential flooding, (ii) insufficient communication and collaboration amongstakeholders, and (iii) exclusion of local knowledge and activities in at-riskcommunities in the formal flood EWS.To mitigate the issue, at-risk communities complement the formal floodEWS with their own informal communication channels. These include doorto-door visits, phone calls, text messages, whistles, and shouting to disseminatewarning information. Formal flood EWS and informal community systems havetheir strengths and weaknesses. Formal flood EWS, despite their technologicaladvancements, may not provide accurate or reliable information that is contextspecific due to lack of local knowledge and resources (Parker & Handmer, 1998).On the other hand, informal flood EWS rely on local knowledge and practicesDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCitizen science 217but face limitations when it comes to technology, reliability, coordination, andadaptability (Parker & Handmer, 1998). As a result, the systems work in silos,decreasing the effectiveness of the overall system.Integrating citizen science for flood risk managementThe Sendai Framework encourages ‘a people-centered approach’ to flood risk(UNDRR, 2015). This has led to the rise of community-based flood early warningsystems (CBFEWS), based on citizen science, low-cost technology, and timelydissemination of information. The aim of CBFEWS is to increase the awarenessand preparedness of at-risk communities and decrease their vulnerability tonatural hazards (Garcia et al., 2014). We used a citizen science approach topilot and implement CBFEWS in the Akaki catchment (Figure 11.5).Figure 11.5 A citizen scientist making notes about flooding in his logbook. (Credit: TilayeWorku Bekele).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest218 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityTo establish CBFEWS using citizen science, researchers from theInternational Water Management Institute, in collaboration with the at-riskcommunities, identified a total of 11 citizen scientists (six women and fivemen) from said communities to co-manage the system. The selection processwas inclusive and representative, involving a diverse range of age groups andoccupations, including farmers, sand miners, daily labourers, stay-at-homespouses, and football players. Citizen scientists expressed that they were drawnto CBFEWS because of their passion, as well as the networking and educationalopportunities the initiative offered, but they were also wary of the substantialtime, money, and energy commitment. Balancing dedication, benefits, and costswas crucial (Figure 11.6).The piloted citizen science approach in CBFEWS integrates formal floodEWS with at-risk community activities, co-generating flood risk knowledge,facilitating transdisciplinarycollaboration, and establishinga feedback mechanism.As this video shows, a widerange of stakeholders areinvolved in CBFEWS, includingat-risk communities, citizenscientists, staff from AAWSAand EMI, and researchersfrom the International WaterManagement Institute andFigure 11.6 Citizen scientists out in the field. (Credit: Tilaye Worku Bekele).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCitizen science 219Addis Ababa University. CBFEWS stakeholders collaborate through directcommunication, training programmes, and workshops. In addition, researchersand citizen scientists develop flood data collection guides to document andshare causes and impacts of, as well as responses to, flooding in their localities,contributing to the field of flood research. Moreover, the Addis AbabaAdaptation Network platform promotes transdisciplinary collaboration andreliable information exchange.Benefits and challenges of CBFEWSThe Akaki flood EWS has significantly improved due to the meaningfulengagement of citizen scientists in CBFEWS and subsequent two-waycommunication. For example, the collaboration of citizen scientists, researchers,and Legedadi dam operators has generated valuable insights with regard to thecorrelation between water discharge from the Legedadi dam and the depthand extent of floods in Akaki. Among other things, this has enabled accuratewater release timing, which has helped to reduce night-time flooding. To nameanother example, thanks to their collaboration with researchers and EMIrainfall forecasting experts, citizen scientists have been able to get improvedaccess to rainfall forecast information and training to convert the informationinto flood warnings, fostering further knowledge co-generation on flood risk.However, there have also been challenges in implementing CBFEWSusing citizen science in the Akaki catchment. Firstly, due to the absenceof institutional structures, CBFEWS relies heavily on specific personalconnections, affecting the long-term sustainability of the pilot. Secondly, thecitizen scientists’ contribution and motivation vary widely depending on theirage, gender, livelihood and so on., shaping how the overall system performs.Thirdly, insufficient resources to design and implement CBFEWS in a widercontext hamstrings the initiative’s ability to engage diverse social groups and/or reach a wide audience with the resulting warning information.Overall, our results show that the application of citizen science in CBFEWSimproves local responsiveness and the performance of flood EWS. Specifically, itenhances collaboration among stakeholders, helping to empower communities,build trust, and instil ownership. However, limited institutional structuresand capacities affect the long-term sustainability and performance of pilotedCBFEWS. To address these challenges, we need to establish institutionalstructures and operational guidelines, allocate adequate resources, and considerfurther diverse engagement and incentive mechanisms at the local level.REFERENCESAraujo G., Legaspi C., Matthews K., Ponzo A., Chin A. and Manjaji-Matsumoto B. M.(2020). Citizen science sheds light on the cryptic ornate eagle ray Aetomylaeusvespertilio. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 30(10),2012–2018, https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.3457Arienzo M. M., Collins M. and Jennings K. S. (2021). Enhancing engagement of citizenscientists to monitor precipitation phase. Frontiers in Earth Sciences, 9, 617594,https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.617594Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest220 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityBabiso W. Z., Ayano K. K., Haile A. T., Keche D. D., Acharya K. and Werner D. (2023).Citizen science for water quality monitoring in the Meki River, Ethiopia: qualityassurance and comparison with conventional methods. Water, 15(2), 238, https://doi.org/10.3390/w15020238Canwat V. (2023). Social innovations and drivers in flood early warning systems: acommunity-based transboundary perspective from Elegu flood plain in NorthernUganda. Journal of Flood Risk Management, e12930, https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12930Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) and United Nations Officefor Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). (2020). The Human Cost of Disasters: AnOverview of the Last 20 Years (2000–2019). UNDRR, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.undrr.org/quick/50922 (accessed 6 June 2024)DD News. (2022). IITD AAB praharee mobail aip se jal bharaav kee vajahon ka pata lagsakega (‘IITD AAB Prahari’ mobile app will help in finding out the causes of waterlogging). YouTube video, 13 September. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZZOrxlQe4 (accessed 17 April 2024)Fairudz Jamaluddin A., IkmalNor Mustafa Kamal M. and Helmi Abdullah M. (2022).Comparison between satellite-derived rainfall and rain gauge observation overPeninsular Malaysia. Sains Malaysiana, 51(1), 67–81, https://doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2022-5101-06Feyissa G., Zeleke G., Gebremariam E. and Bewket W. (2018). GIS Basedquantification and mapping of climate change vulnerability hotspots in AddisAbaba. Geoenvironmental Disasters, 5(14), 1–17, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-018-0106-4Fraisl D., Hager G., Bedessem B., Gold M., Hsing P.-Y., Danielsen F., Hitchcock C. B.,Hulbert J. M., Piera J., Spiers H., Thiel M. and Haklay M. (2022). Citizen science inenvironmental and ecological sciences. Natural Reviews Methods Primers, 2(64),https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-022-00144-4Garcia C., Frigerio S., Daehne A., Corsini A. and Sterlacchini S. (2014). The relevance ofearly-warning systems and evacuations plans for risk management. In: MountainRisks: From Prediction to Management and Governance, T. Van Asch, J. Corominas,S. Greiving, J.-P. Malet and S. Sterlacchini (eds.), Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands,Vol 34, pp. 341–364, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6769-0_13Haklay M. (2013). Citizen science and volunteered geographic information: overview andtypology of participation. In: Crowdsourcing Geographic Knowledge: VolunteeredGeographic Information (VGI) in Theory and Practice), D. Sui, S. Elwood andM. Goodchild (eds.), Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 105–122, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4587-2_7International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC). (2020). WorldDisasters Report 2020. Come Heat or High Water: Tackling the HumanitarianImpacts of the Climate Crisis Together. IFRC, Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.ifrc.org/document/world-disasters-report-2020 (accessed 6 June 2024)Jalsuraksha. (2023). Waterlogging Locations Reported by Citizens Using ‘IITD AABPrahari’ Mobile App. IIT Delhi India Collaboratory, Water Security and SustainableDevelopment in National Capital Territory of Delhi. https://jalsuraksha.iitd.ac.in/barapullah/aab_prahari/showwaterlogging.html (accessed 17 April 2024)Kumar A. (2023). ‘Development gone ‘rogue’ and the high flood in Delhi’. The Wire, 20July. https://thewire.in/environment/development-rogue-flood-delhi (accessed 17April 2024)Lüsse M., Brockhage F., Beeken M. and Pietzner V. (2022). Citizen science and itspotential for science education. International Journal of Science Education, 44(7),1120–1142, https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2022.2067365Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCitizen science 221Ngcamu B. S. (2023). Climate change effects on vulnerable populations in the GlobalSouth: a systematic review. Natural Hazards, 118(2), 977–991, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-06070-2Njue N., Stenfert Kroese J., Gräf J., Jacobs S. R., Weeser B., Breuer L. and Rufino M.C. (2019). Citizen science in hydrological monitoring and ecosystem servicesmanagement: state of the art and future prospects. Science of the Total Environment,693, 133531, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.337Parker D. J. and Handmer J. W. (1998). The role of unofficial flood warning systems.Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 6(1), 45–60, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.00067Paul J. D., Cieslik K., Sah N., Shakya P., Parajuli B. P., Paudel S., Dewulf A. andBuytaert W. (2020). Applying citizen science for sustainable development: rainfallmonitoring in western Nepal. Frontiers in Water, 2, 581375, https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2020.581375Sa’adi Z., Alias N. E., Yusop Z., Iqbal Z., Houmsi M. R., Houmsi L. N., Ramli M. W. A.and Muhammad M. K. I. (2024a). Application of relative importance metrics forCMIP6 models selection in projecting basin-scale rainfall over Johor River Basin,Malaysia. Science of the Total Environment, 912, 169187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169187Sa’adi Z., Alias N. E., Yusop Z., Ramli M. W. A. and Muhammad M. K. I. (2024b). CHIRPSRainfall product application for analyzing rainfall concentration and seasonality inJohor River Basin, Malaysia. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics,256, 106203, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2024.106203United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). (2009). 2009 UNISDRTerminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. United Nations International Strategyfor Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.undrr.org/quick/10973 (accessed 6 June 2024)United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). (2015). Sendai Frameworkfor Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. United Nations International Strategyfor Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.undrr.org/quick/11409 (accessed 6 June 2024)van Emmerik T., Seibert J., Strobl B., Etter S., den Oudendammer T., Rutten M., bin AbRazak M. S. and van Meerveld I. (2020). Crowd-based observations of riverinemacroplastic pollution. Frontiers in Earth Sciences, 8, 298, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00298Wolff W. (2021). The promise of a ‘people-centred’ approach to floods: types ofparticipation in the global literature of citizen science and community-basedflood risk reduction in the context of the Sendai Framework. Progress in DisasterScience, 10, 100171, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2021.100171Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0223© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Renu Khosla, Carolina Montoya Pachongo, Sheilja Singh, Federico Pinzónand Andrés Fernando Toro VélezCo-production aims to increase community participation in identifyingproblems and creating solutions; it is therefore fundamental in enablingequitable, redistributive, and integrative water management. In resource-scarcesettings, community-based solutions that reduce the risks associated with poorquality drinking water, sanitation services, and hygiene are vital to ensuringsustainability of the interventions. In this chapter, authors present case studiesfrom rural Colombia and Delhi, India that show how locals’ involvement inparticipatory projects has allowed them to self-manage water, sanitation, andhygiene (WASH) services, helping to improve their general well-being.12.1 COMMUNITY-BASED WASH SOLUTIONS IN NCT DELHI, INDIARenu Khosla, Carolina Montoya Pachongo and Sheilja Singh,Poor water quality can significantly impact a community’s socio-economic,ecological, and health conditions; as such, access to adequate sanitation andsafe water is not only a fundamental human right, but also crucial for reducingpoverty, promoting equality, and supporting socio-economic development.When a community is exposed to low-quality water, especially whencombined with inadequate sanitation facilities, it can lead to a wide range ofhealth issues (Biswas & Gangwar, 2021; Lin et al., 2022). These include: heavymetals from industry, which, when discharged into water bodies, affect floraand fauna and subsequently the humans consuming the fauna; and microbialcontaminants in sewage, such as the bacteria Vibrio cholerae, which causescholera, and Salmonella typhi, which causes typhoid fever, are major sources ofwaterborne diseases. All of this leads to increased healthcare costs and reducedChapter 12Co-productionDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest224 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityquality of life. And in turn, poor water quality can also impact mental health, ashaving no access to clean water seriously compromises human well-being anddevelopment.In the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT Delhi), both water supplyvolume and water quality vary considerably between districts, contributingto the ongoing water crisis (Biswas & Gangwar, 2021). Recent studies haveconcluded that the groundwater quality in central and south-east districts ofNCT Delhi is substandard, highlighting the need to improve the water supplyin the area (Bidhuri & Khan, 2020). As things stand, unregulated groundwaterextraction and unauthorised construction hinder the groundwater’s ability torecharge and contribute to declining groundwater levels across various parts ofthe city. In addition, despite various government programmes and initiatives,the quality of water is declining in multiple areas across the city, primarilybecause of pollution, shortages arising from development and infrastructureprojects, and transboundary conflicts. These factors collectively impact theurban environment as well as the quality of life and human survival rate in NCTDelhi (Aijaz, 2020). How our cities are built directly contributes to economicand urban health outcomes; however, as we saw in Chapter 9, improving accessto clean water, particularly in informal settlements, is a challenge due to thecomplex nature of water governance in NCT Delhi.Access to a decent household toilet is key to improving physical and socialwell-being. But in overcrowded and dense informal settlements, vulnerablecommunities typically experience inadequate living conditions and rely on pitlatrines, community toilets, or nearby public toilets for their daily basic needs.Life without a toilet is dirty, dangerous, and undignified, compromising theindividual’s right to water and sanitation as well as impacting public health.It should also be noted that having adequate toilet facilities also often drivesimprovements in gender equality, education, economics, and the environment.In this video, Renu Khoslatalks to Carolina MontoyaPachongo about her work withresidents of the Safeda Bastiin Geeta Colony, home toapproximately 800 households,located on the western bankof the Yamuna River. In2011, CURE worked withthe community to co-designa simplified sewer line toconnect the settlement to the main sewer. The simplified sewer has enabledover 60 households in one street to build individual toilets. This was part of aparticipatory development project, which was found to bring more than waterand sanitation benefits: it led to physical upgrading of the household, increasedsafety for women and girls, and better access to education for children. Thecommunity then led an initiative to replicate the project in other settlements,demonstrating that such projects can empower vulnerable populations to selfmanage water and sanitation solutions.Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCo-production 22512.2 SOCIO-TECHNICAL INNOVATION FOR WATER QUALITY DATA:INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR RURAL COMMUNITY WATERMANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIAFederico Pinzón and Andrés Fernando Toro Vélez,Currently, 161 million people in Latin America do not have adequate access tosafe drinking water and 461 million do not have access to sanitation (ECLAC,2022). The situation becomes even more complex when you consider thedifferences between urban and rural areas. In Colombia, the drinking watercoverage for urban areas is 97%; for rural areas, by contrast, it is just 59% (Garciaet al., 2015). And these aggregate figures at the national level also hide a classgap, as developed, wealthy communities mostly reside in urban areas, whereasvulnerable communities, including indigenous people and afro-descendants,often reside in rural areas (as well as some informal settlements in cities).In rural areas of Latin America, the main providers of drinking water arecommunity-based organisations (CBOs). At the end of the 20th century andstart of the 21st, various empowerment processes among CBOs gave rise tosecond-tier regional associations, such as the Association of CommunityOrganisations Providers of Public Services of Water and Sanitation of Colombia(Aquacol) and the Federation of Community Organisations Providers of RuralResidential Public Services of Valle del Cauca (FECOSER). Between them, thetwo organisations bring together 161 CBOs and 240 128 consumers (BlancoMoreno & Peña-Varón, 2023). The CBOs in Aquacol and FECOSER seek toshare knowledge, support each other in solidarity, defend their rights, promotepolicies, and more. For information on their history, process of associativity, andadvancements in recognition, please see Carolina Blanco Moreno’s spotlight inPrinciple 1, Chapter 1.Promoting associativity and sharing local knowledge is vital to democratiseaccess to data and information, and subsequently make better community-baseddecisions concerning water supply. Currently, it is difficult for rural communitywater supply organisations (RCWSOs) to understand reports from the officialnational platforms because searching for the data is expensive, the interfaceis challenging to navigate, and these platforms do not offer helpful, locallyappropriate information for water administrators and operators. RCWSOs arealso expected to upload information to these platforms themselves, with therespective authorities sometimes imposing fines when the information is notuploaded on time. Addressing these challenges requires a two-fold approach,involving (i) the creation of alternative and locally appropriate informationsystems, and (ii) the transformation of existing technological platforms. Bothissues can be more readily addressed by second-tier organisations like Aquacoland FECOSER, which can act as political advocates for RCWSOs as well aschannels for technology transfer.Participatory processes of co-creationSince 2006, Aquacol has sought to develop a platform to record data relatedto water supply in a way that is useful and accessible to local communityDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest226 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityleaders – this essentially involves keeping structured records using basicinformation and communication technologies that make it easier to operate,maintain, and monitor water systems. But Aquacol has struggled to achieve thisobjective because the existing system was put in place by national governmentorganisations and continues to serve their interests.Faced with this situation, Aquacol and the Cinara Institute of the Universityof Valle have jointly undertaken a participatory process to co-create aninnovative community water information system, working with the fourRCWSOs in the region that have the highest number of users and that each usedifferent technologies for water treatment (Table 12.1).Table 12.1 Selection criteria for and technology of the four RCWSOs. (Credit: AndrésFernando Toro Vélez).RCWSO SelectionCriteriaTechnology for Water TreatmentACUAMONDOMONumber of users: 5000Treated water flow (litresper second): 22 l/sPartial historical waterquality data availableGPS equipment availablefor geo-referencingstructuresAll the information inblueprintsFiME (filtración multietapa, Spanish acronym for multistage filtration)ACUASURNumber of users: 17 000Treated water flow:40 l/sHourly logging of waterquality data in ananalogous mannerWillingness to designateoperational personnelto oversee datamanagementConventional water treatment plant (coagulation,flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCo-production 227The co-creation process utilised GIS tools alongside participatory actionresearch to define the gaps and requirements of the system, design a conceptualmodel, collect field data, perform quality assurance and quality controlactivities, and finally develop the technical module.1 In this way, we developed1 This development was carried out with Environmental Services Research Institute(ESRI) technology, under ESRI’s social responsibility agreement for non-profitorganisations, which facilitated the acquisition of licences for Aquacol. GIS technologycan be expensive, and hence difficult for some organisations to access and use, unlesscompanies like ESRI are willing to offer it cheaply.Table 12.1 Selection criteria for and technology of the four RCWSOs. (Credit: AndrésFernando Toro Vélez) (Continued) .RCWSO selectioncriteriaTechnology for water treatmentLA SIRENANumber of users: 5265Treated water flow:15 l/sOperators demonstrateprofound knowledge ofthe water utility networkstructurePrevious work ininformation modellingConnections withtrainees from technicalinstitutionsFiME (filtración multietapa, Spanish acronym for multistage filtration)ACUANARIÑONumber of users: 1049Treated water flow:15 l/sExisting hydraulicmodelling process ofscenarios for watermanagementAdvances in dataorganisation buthigh vulnerability ininformation securityOxFi (filtración de oxidación, Spanish acronym foroxidation plus upflow gravel filtration for groundwater)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest228 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securitya bespoke process and system that drew upon community perspectives andneeds, thus differing fundamentally from existing official national platforms(Figure 12.1).The resulting informationsystem is called NuestraAgua (Our Water). This videodocuments the challenges facedby RCWSOs and explores theprocess and benefits of NuestraAgua for those involved in itscreation. Nuestra Agua is adynamic platform that allowsand facilitates the collection,registration, and analysis ofinformation related to RCWSOs.Resulting outcomesThe co-construction of a community water information system as a sociotechnical tool for innovation generated new capacities in both the communitiesand Aquacol (into which Nuestra Agua has been incorporated) when it comesto managing data and administering the information system. It is now possiblefor RCWSOs to log and access geo-referenced data at a convenient and detailedscale and to refer to historical data on critical variables for the operation ofthe water supply system. However, this has generated a new concern: datasecurity. RCWSOs need to feel confident that their information is storedsecurely to stop sensitive data, for example, information about the structure ofthe water utility network (the technical cadastre), being used for clandestineor illegal activities.RCWSOs have also found another unexpected – but perhaps more relevant –way to use this technological platform, besides monitoring the quality, quantity,and continuity of the drinking water system: Nuestra Agua is now being used toFigure 12.1 Workshop with RCWSOs to formulate the water information system. (Credit:Federico Pinzón).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCo-production 229register the users of the RCWSO, their economic activities, and their relationshipwith water consumption, and to review inventories of materials used to repairand extend the networks. The evolution of this co-created tool has generatedfurther ideas for new modules related to leakage management, communication,and reporting across users of the water system. The communities, together withthe University of Valle, are now designing methods to monitor the state of thebasin, which are to be implemented in the information system in the future.Through GIS technology, it is possible to collect local and thematic data thatthe community needs to manage their water at the local level, in addition toproviding analysis tools to support the decision-making process and operationof the water supply systems. As a result, communities can now make stronger,more informed decisions with data and information acquired through localtechnological platforms. This also strengthens the position of the local CBOs,which manage and guarantee their own systems’ sustainability as well asensuring water security in their territories.All in all, this co-creative alliance between academia and CBOs throughparticipatory action research has led to improvements in methodologies,data management, and local governance: indeed, this case study shows thatco-creation processes generate new values related to governance, promotinghorizontal relationships between institutions, minimising potential negativeoutcomes, and strengthening decision-making with high-quality technicalinformation (Li & Tuunanen, 2022; Polo Peña et al., 2014). We want to thankall the communities that participated in the construction of Nuestra Agua, aswell as members of Aquacol and researchers at the Cinara Institute, Universityof Valle, especially Mariela Garcia (Figure 12.2).REFERENCESAijaz R. (2020). Bridging Water Demand and Supply in Delhi: The Potential ofRainwater Harvesting. ORF Special Report 117, Observer Research Foundation,New Delhi, India. https://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ORF_SpecialReport_117_RainwaterHarvesting.pdf (accessed 19 April 2024)Figure 12.2 Co-creators of Nuestra Agua with Professor Mariela Garcia. (Credit: FedericoPinzón).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest230 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityBidhuri S. and Khan M. M. A. (2020). Assessment of ground water quality of central andsoutheast districts of NCT of Delhi. Journal of The Geological Society of India, 95,95–103, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-020-1390-7Biswas A. and Gangwar D. (2021). Studying the water crisis in Delhi due to rapidurbanisation and land use transformation. International Journal of UrbanSustainable Development, 13(2), 199–213, https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2020.1858423Blanco-Moreno C. and Peña-Varón M. (2023). Relationship between community watermanagement, conceptions, and struggles for justice in Southwest Colombia.Environmental Justice, 16(3), 230–243, https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2022.0065Garcia M., Peña M. R., Toro A., Cerón V. A., Tamayo S. P., Mena-Aristizábal E., Orjuela V.,Morales D., Bolaños S. I., Vidal-Gómez J. and Castro J. E. (2015). Democratisationof water and sanitation governance by means of socio-technical innovation –empowerment, resilience and sustainability: evaluation of an integrated waterand sanitation system in a rural community in Colombia. WATERLAT-GOBACITNetwork Working Papers, 2(9), Research Projects Series SPIDES – DESAFIOProject, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK and Santiago de Cali, Colombia, https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1361.6244Li M. and Tuunanen T. (2022). Information technology-supported value co-creationand co-destruction via social interaction and resource integration in servicesystems. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 31(2), 101719, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsis.2022.101719Lin L., Yang H. and Xu X. (2022). Effects of water pollution on human health and diseaseheterogeneity: A review. Frontiers in Environmental Sciences, 10, 880246, https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.880246Polo Peña A. I., Frías Jamilena D. M. and Rodríguez Molina MÁ (2014). Value co-creationvia information and communications technology. The Service Industries Journal,34(13), 1043–1059, https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2014.939641United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)(2022). A Transformative Recovery in Latin America and the Caribbean with BasicDrinking Water and Electricity Services as Key Sectors. Briefing note, 18 December.https://www.cepal.org/en/notes/transformative-recovery-latin-america-andcaribbean-basic-drinking-water-and-electricity (accessed 17 April 2024)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0231© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Catalina Trujillo OsorioWe – as individuals and society – need to move away from ‘utilitarianenvironmentalism’ approaches to sustainability, that is protecting theenvironment because of the social and economic benefits we derive from it(Muradian & Gómez-Baggethun, 2021). As we saw in Chapter 3, proponentsof ecological justice hold that more-than-human nature has intrinsic value andmoral standing in its own right (Washington et  al., 2018; Wienhues, 2020).Building on this, the case study in this chapter offers an example of howcollaboration centred around an ethics of care can bring about ‘transformationalchange’ (Muradian & Gómez-Baggethun, 2021; Narayanaswamy et al., 2023).13.1 NETWORKS OF COLLECTIVE CARE: COOPERATION FORCONSERVATION IN A COLOMBIAN WATERSHEDCatalina Trujillo OsorioIn Colombia, water and sanitation coverage has historically been deficient andinequitable at social and environmental levels. For example, although 73% ofhouseholds currently have drinking water services, only 17% have sanitationcoverage (The World Bank, 2020). Additionally, only 5% of the water used forconsumption and agricultural production receives any treatment and 60% of thecountry’s rivers present some signs of contamination (IDEAM, 2019), showingthe shortcomings of Colombian water infrastructure (Figueroa-Benitez et al.,2023; Nagheeby et al., 2023).This situation has been exacerbated by the integrated water resourcesmanagement (IWRM) model adopted at a national level, which is based onneoliberal and hegemonic values that prioritise economic growth and efficiency(MMAVDT, 2010). Thus, Colombian water policy defines the resource byChapter 13Community leadershipDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest232 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityinstrumental, vertical, and exclusionary characteristics, which fail to reflectthe real value water holds for diverse social groups around the country (Correa,2015). The IWRM model, which is oriented solely from the top-down perspective,similarly does not recognise the existence of valuable social networks aroundwater governance and does not make space for local actors who have beenhistorically excluded from water governance – but who actively attend to watercare, at watersheds and at the basin level.Alternative frameworks for water managementIn the Upper Meléndez River Basin (in Cali, the capital of the Valle del Caucadepartment), the inhabitants, water users, institutional environmental actors, suchas the Farallones National Natural Park, Río Meléndez National Protective ForestReserves, and local social groups, have formed a hydrosocial network around thecare of water and its attendant ecosystems, with the aim of protecting the basinfrom degradation. This water care network is a collective practice, whereby allmembers of the network work together to promote the preservation of the area, aswell as jointly developing sustainable ways to use the river, soil, forest resources,and water in the basin. Through this process, the network stakeholders havedeveloped an alternative relationship with water that is based on shared socialvalues of recognition, respect, cooperation, and gratefulness – which apply to theriver, the community, and the territory as a whole (Trujillo Osorio et al., 2023).Through a participatory social learning process and social network analysismethods, we identified 35 types of actors in this hydrosocial network, connectedby intertwined relationships and collaborative water care values. In this network(Figure 13.1), three categories of actors stand out: private (Actores Privados),collective (Actores Colectivos), and state (Actores Estatales), each with distinctroles inside the network, as well as water relations, water uses, and care practices.Private actors are associated with economic sectors such as livestock,agriculture, tourism, and services like transportation and restaurants.Collective actors, meanwhile, are generally community-based social groupsthat promote social and collective processes and work for socio-ecologicalwelfare, such as popular action boards, community councils, basin foundations,and other actors like the local green agro-ecological market, Mercado de laMontaña (Mountain Market), that seek collective well-being at a social andenvironmental level. Finally, state actors are the state-level institutions thatprovide social and environmental services; in this case, such actors include thenational park, forest reservations, rural deputies, environmental agencies, andothers engaged in the environmental conservation and regulation of the basin.As seen in Figure 13.2, the basin actors are all connected: the lines indicatethe relationships between actors. The blue lines represent relationships ofcare, protection, control, respect, and cooperation between actors caring forwater and ecosystems, while the black lines represent relationships related toproduction, extraction, and trade, among others.Collective care and cooperationAt the network’s core, we find a group of 31 actors united by conceptions of careand care practices, and also sharing values relating to respect and admirationDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCommunity leadership 233for water. They carry out joint, quotidian actions to defend and care for theriver and the territory, such as permanent reforestation days, water harvesting,spring care, cleaning of rivers and streams, local seed planting, and othershared actions related to water and basin care.In addition, actors not linked to the care network, such as safety officers,rural water companies, tourism agencies, tourists visiting the basin, and thepublic water utility company of Cali, are still encouraged to adopt a visionof water that is oriented towards instrumental, extractive, efficient, andcaring values: these shared values, actions, and practices are essential forforging long-term relationships at the local, regional, and city levels. Indeed,their utility as political instruments for water management should not beoverlooked.This water care network, then, highlights the role of cooperation in watersecurity and how it pays to establish robust care links between water actors inthe basin (see also Narayanaswamy et al. 2023). In turn, such networks begetfurther connection, fostering the development of collective social processesrelated to water care practices, such as Mercado de la Montaña and a volunteerscheme in the forest, among others. Shared care values act as a bridge throughwhich different actors can integrate, form networks, multiply their values, andformulate visions around care and water security (Figure 13.3).Figure 13.1 Water-related actors from Meléndez Basin: actor-mapping workshop (TrujilloOsorio et al., 2023). (Credit: Catalina Trujillo Osorio).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest234 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityA new water management modelThis case study from the Upper Meléndez River Basin highlights the value ofnetworks that prioritise water and environmental care over economic growth,supply, and efficiency. Through participatory workshops, we established a localdefinition of water security as ‘the process of collective care for water, forest,and mountain, which fosters the capability to conserve the abundance of waterfor life, beauty, fauna, and the forest as a whole community’ (see Figure 13.4 fororiginal Spanish and direct English translation).Figure 13.2 Composition and structure of Meléndez Basin Actors (Trujillo Osorio et al.,2023). (Credit: Catalina Trujillo Osorio).Figure 13.3 Mercado de la Montaña (Mountain Market), a local green agro-ecologicalmarket. (Credit: Catalina Trujillo Osorio).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCommunity leadership 235Figure 13.4 Local understanding of water security, as expressed during workshops.Translation: ‘What does water security mean to you? It means: caring for the ecosystemwith awareness, knowledge, respect, and gratitude; to conserve the abundance of waterfor life, biodiversity, and everything as a unit.’ (Credit: rootsandwings.design).Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest236 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityFor these reasons, the Upper Meléndez River Basin has been held up as aterritorial management blueprint for other basins in the region. These otherbasins are currently beginning to form environmental care networks of theirown, such as via local and collective agro-ecological markets, in an effort toforge shared care values and protection practices in everyday life.REFERENCESCorrea G. (2015). Gobernabilidad del agua en Colombia: dimensiones y contexto (Watergovernance in Colombia: dimensions and context). Revista Educación y DesarrolloSocial, 9(2), 124–135. https://doi.org/10.18359/reds.950Figueroa-Benitez A., Nagheeby M., Figueroa A. and Amezaga J. (2023). Disrupted watergovernance in the shadows: revealing the role of hidden actors in the Upper CaucaRiver Basin in Colombia. Frontiers in Water, 5, 801171. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2023.801171Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environment Studies (IDEAM) (2019). EstudioNacional del Agua 2018 (National Water Study 2018). IDEAM, Bogotá, Colombia.http://www.andi.com.co/Uploads/ENA_2018-comprimido.pdf (accessed 17 April2024)Ministry of Environment, Housing and Territorial Development (MMAVDT) (2010).Política Nacional para la Gestión Integral del Recurso Hídrico (National Policy forthe Comprehensive Management of Water Resources). MMAVDT, Vol. 1, Bogotá,Colombia. https://www.minambiente.gov.co/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/PoliticaNacional-para-la-Gestion-Integral-del-Recurso-Hidrico.pdf (accessed 6 June 2024)Muradian R. and Gómez-Baggethun E. (2021). Beyond ecosystem services and nature’scontributions: Is it time to leave utilitarian environmentalism behind?, EcologicalEconomics, 185, 107038, 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107038Nagheeby M., Amezaga J. and Mdee A. (eds.) (2023). Critical Water Governance:Contextualising Water Security in Colombia, Ethiopia, India and Malaysia. July 2023Joint Report, Water Security and Sustainable Development Hub, UK Research andInnovation. https://eprints.ncl.ac.uk/file_store/production/294534/341330FDD5B7-46A9-99CF-B7716E9C2004.pdf (accessed 17 April 2024).Narayanaswamy L., Ferritto R., Hillesland M., Anker V., Singhal S., Maysels R. M.,Bantider A., Charles K., Doss C., Kumar A., Mdee A., Neo S-M., Pinzón F. andMengistu B. T. (2023). Why a feminist ethics of care and socio-ecological justicelens matter for global, interdisciplinary research on water security. Frontiers inHuman Dynamics, 5, 1212188. https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2023.1212188The World Bank (2020). Colombia: Turning the Tide. Water Security for Recoveryand Sustainable Growth. Policy Brief, International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/The World Bank, Washington DC, US. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/148581599058364514-0090022020/render/TurningtheTideBriefENAugust3020.pdf (accessed 17 April 2024)Trujillo Osorio C., Peña-Varón M. and Revelo-Osorio L. (2023). Aportes al estudio de lasredes hidrosociales desde los métodos de análisis de redes sociales ARS: estudiode caso en la cuenca alta del Río Meléndez-Colombia (Contributions to the studyof hydrosocial networks from ARS social network analysis methods: case study inthe upper basin of the Meléndez River in Colombia). INTER-LEGERE, 6(36), 38,https://doi.org/10.21680/1982-1662.2023v6n36Washington H., Chapron G., Kopnina H., Curry P., Gray J. and Piccolo J. J. (2018).Foregrounding ecojustice in conservation. Biological Conservation, 228, 367–374.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.09.011Wienhues A. (2020). Ecological Justice and the Extinction Crisis. 1st edn, BristolUniversity Press, Bristol, UK. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv16t671cDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_00237© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Victoria Anker, Rachael Maysels and Maria Valasia PeppaThe spotlights in the collaboration principle highlight the different ways in whichwe – particularly as researchers – have engaged and worked with stakeholdersto address water insecurity in different socio-cultural and socio-ecologicalcontexts from Colombia, Ethiopia, India, and Malaysia. In particular, thespotlights emphasise the diverse, non-hierarchical ways in which collaborationcan manifest, while recognising the limitations of these collaborativeapproaches and their inability to redress systemic injustices in areas such asgovernance structures and democratic participation. Likewise, while we arecommitted to rigorous and systematic research, we acknowledge our ownbiases in our problem-solving approaches and recognise the complexities ofensuring equitable engagement within big international research partnerships(Narayanaswamy et al., 2023).Collaboration is often complex as it involves actors from diverse backgrounds,cultures, and institutional systems. This complexity was described in Chapter9.1, where we mapped the multi-level institutional structure of Delhi’s watergovernance in India, showing its fragmented nature, according to which differentlevels struggle to coordinate and citizens are unable to participate. Lookingback in history, this structure was once suited to the city’s previous populationand colonial political conditions. Today, however, with rapid urban growth,the structure does not promote water equity, nor safeguard water security, aswe define it here. To enable change, we need to educate young people, helpingthem to understand the difficulties of the past so that they do not repeat themin the present and instead create a brighter future. Chapter 9.2 demonstrateshow international, national, and local charity organisations have initiated youthparticipation in urban planning, heritage conservation, and decision-making,applying pressure to the public authorities in India to include all voices in everyPrinciple 3Collaboration – conclusionDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest238 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityaspect of urban/water management. Obviously, rigorous changes will take timeto be accepted in this political and geographic context; however, such initiativesgive a sense of hope, as they plant the seed of recognising and including youthvoices in the cycle of proactive management.Practical steps forward, allowing us to move from fragmentation tocontinuous dialogue and engagement, are established in Chapter 10. The firstspotlight demonstrates the importance of building long-term relationshipsbetween local community members (e.g. fishers and farmers) and governmentalactors in Johor River Basin, Malaysia. To establish such relationships, manyinformal dialogues (e.g. virtual coffees during the COVID-19 pandemic)have been organised by the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) over thepast four years. The UTM research team now understands community needsin relation to water resource management and can bridge the gap betweengovernmental actors and local voices. Likewise, the second spotlightarticulates a clear methodology to highlight the various access points forstakeholders to engage with research – from context analysis, to qualitativeinput into numerical configurations, through to scenario quantification andvalidation. This continual engagement ensures the scenarios being modelledare appropriate and relevant for stakeholders, generating actionable andrealistic solutions for the proactive management of water resources in theCentral Rift Valley.We have already seen that environmental and climate education areinnately tied to environmental and climate justice. Citizen science can, at itsmost basic, fill data gaps created by the absence of regular monitoring, whichotherwise hampers understanding of water quality, water-related risks, andrisks to people’s health and livelihoods. However, as the spotlights in Chapter11 demonstrate, citizen science generates more than just accurate and reliabledata. It helps communities enhance their understanding of their environmentand enables them to better engage in discussions about water managementand inform adaptation strategies. Chapter 11.3 shows how establishing a linkbetween the Legedadi reservoir operators (such as the Addis Ababa Waterand Sewerage Authority) and downstream communities – who are negativelyimpacted by the operators’ practices – has led to exchange of valuableinformation and creation of early warning notifications, thus reducing damagecaused by reservoir operations.In this section, we’ve also explored how communities work with researchers,non-governmental organisations, and other stakeholders to co-produce,co-create, and lead the identification of problems and solutions. Chapters12.2 and 13.1 highlight the interconnectedness of water supply, water quality,floods, soil erosion, and ecosystem health. The Andean communities of Caucaare diverse across a number of factors, including (but not limited to) gender,ethnicity, and disability. As such, working with and being guided by localcommunities is an important aspect of how our Colombian colleagues havegenerated equitable, redistributive, and integrative actions to address issues ofwater insecurity. In summary, the spotlights in this principle have shown thatwhile collaboration can be challenging, it plays a fundamental role in ensuringDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestCollaboration – conclusion 239no one and nothing is left behind in the pathway towards proactive watermanagement.REFERENCENarayanaswamy L., Ferritto R., Hillesland M., Anker V., Singhal S., Maysels R. M.,Bantider A., Charles K., Doss C., Kumar A., Mdee A., Neo S-M., Pinzón F. andMengistu B. T. (2023). Why a feminist ethics of care and socio-ecological justicelens matter for global, interdisciplinary research on water security. Frontiers inHuman Dynamics, 5, 1212188. https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2023.1212188Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestdoi: 10.2166/9781789062540_0241© 2024 IWAP. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercialpurposes with no derivatives, provided the work is properly cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The chapter is from the book Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Security:Transnational perspectives for the next generations, Victoria Anker, Maria Valasia Peppa and RachaelMaysels (Editors).Victoria Anker, Rachael Maysels, Maria Valasia Peppa, Anna Murgatroydand Adey Nigatu MershaThis volume has shown that pushing the paradigm of global water securityrequires an approach rooted in principles of justice for humans and more-thanhumans; knowledge that is pluralistic, accessible, and fair; and collaborationacross sectors and communities, as well as geographical, hydrological,and political borders. We have shown that water security is dependent ona multitude of factors. For example, biophysical factors, such as the climateand weather, impact the quality and quantity of water supply. Anthropogenicfactors, such as sectoral water abstraction, water infrastructure, and the builtenvironment, control the availability and quality of water resources and thedistribution of water to consumers to support socio-economic developments.Finally, policies, institutions, and laws influence who gets water and how often,as well as guiding whether water as a resource is managed in an equitable,efficient, and sustainable manner.The co-production and just distribution of knowledge of the factorsthat influence water security is crucial when determining how we identifysolutions to address current and future development injustices in watersecurity. Collaborative analysis of diverse sets of biophysical, anthropogenic,socio-environmental, and policy scenarios can offer insights into how watersystems might look in the future. Furthermore, shared evaluation of responsesto water security threats between social actors, marginalised voices, resourcemanagers, and policymakers can help to control the known factors that impactwater security. This all works in theory. However, in practice, how do we, asacademics, activists, and advocates for fair and equitable access to safe andsecure water, successfully plan for sustainable water security in the future?ConclusionDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest242 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water SecurityPROACTIVE MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER SECURITYProactive management is not a commonly used term when planning for watersecurity. In spite of this, many components of proactive management areobserved in everyday water system operations and water use. Simply defined,proactive management for water security involves planning for potential threatsto safe water supplies, which we argue should be situated within broader socioecological systems. It is an approach that focuses primarily on preventive(proactive) measures to manage water risks and ensure sustainable watersecurity, instead of responsive (reactive) measures to deal with water-relatedcrises (Madani, 2014) (Figure C.1).A proactive management paradigm recognises the complexity of watersystems and their associated uncertainties, as well as the ways in which thewater sector relates to other sectors. By better understanding how watersystems behave at different scales, and how threats arise, this paradigm tacklesthe root of problems in a holistic and progressive manner, rather than treatingthe symptoms as they occur. In doing so, a proactive management approachmanages water rather than controlling it. Such an approach should explore abroad range of possible solution pathways that include input from a multitudeof actors and make good use of non-structural solutions related to policies,legislation, and institutional arrangements, as well as various structuralFigure C.1 Proactive management for sustainable water security. (Credit: rootsandwings.design)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConclusion 243solutions such as storage systems, diversions, water supply augmentation, waterdistribution networks, and development systems (Cooper, 2016; Madani, 2014).In order to develop effective, equitable systems of proactive water management,we require replicable, adaptable, and cost-effective solutions from a varietyof epistemologies. Water resource-related challenges pose a threat to humanand more-than-human well-being, but a proactive approach to managing thesechallenges can significantly minimise risks and promote coordinated action ina world of uncertainty. Through continuous, interdisciplinary monitoring ofsocio-ecological systems (including natural and biophysical processes, as wellas socio-economic trends), proactive management foresees possible water crisissituations and applies appropriate measures before the real effects of waterinsecurity become apparent.A PROACTIVE MANAGEMENT PATHWAYHere, we present a proactive management pathway for water security, settingout how water can be managed holistically. This framework takes into accountinjustices in water systems and knowledge of current and future risks, whileencouraging collaboration and equitable partnerships. The figure belowdescribes seven stages to guide sustainable decision-making for the nextgeneration. A key element of this approach is the ongoing review of the state ofthe water system and continual reassessment of emerging or potential threatsbefore they materialise, hence the circular design of the pathway (Figure C.2).DETECT existing and future threats to water security: Justice involvesempowering communities as the primary source of detection, with institutionssupporting their ongoing activities. This means ensuring that detection anddata-sharing platforms are open and accessible to the public, particularlythe vulnerable, and implementing a participatory and transparent processfor context analysis to understand the issues faced by these communities.Local knowledge is crucial, and so communities should be trained to aid indetection processes. Understanding current scenarios and existing conditionsin an integrative, timely manner is also essential for identifying existing andfuture threats. This requires real-time, integrated, and open data sharingand forecasting, supported by rigorous systems, tools, and methods such asmodelling, projections, and assessment of vulnerabilities and socio-ecologicalsettings. Collaboration is key to identifying enablers and barriers anddetermining the best ways to work together in the service of mitigation andadaptation. Effective data sharing among all relevant stakeholders is vital forthe quick and accurate detection of pressures, both present and future: sharingmechanisms that normalise communication between institutions, communities,and industries are necessary to facilitate this collaboration.ESTIMATE the likelihood of water insecurity occurring: In a just society,everyone would have access to the same information, enabling well-informedpredictions and fostering an equitable and empowered community. This entailscreating comprehensive, user-friendly open platforms for disaster forecasting.Knowledge is a powerful tool for predicting the future; thus, accessible,representative, and integrated data should be made available to local people, notDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest244 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityjust those in positions of authority. Emphasising citizen science and pluralisticknowledge systems, comprehensive data can help identify trends throughpredictions, modelling, multicriteria analysis, and participatory scenarioanalysis. In order to mark hazard hotspots, we also need to understand thecauses of vulnerability and the factors that alleviate or elevate it. To accessthis information, collaboration is crucial, involving local people and data froma variety of sources to integrate indigenous knowledge with technical andscientific data. Effective data sharing among all relevant stakeholders ensuresthat all potential scenarios are thoroughly considered.CALCULATE the multifaceted impact on water security: Justice requiresus to take an intersectional approach to risk, recognising who is vulnerableand how different groups are affected. It is essential to include all voices inFigure C.2 A proactive management pathway for water security. (Credit: rootsandwings.design)Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConclusion 245risk calculations, considering not just infrastructure and services, but also theenvironment and vulnerable populations. By calculating risk inclusively, wecan identify who will be most impacted by water security issues. Generatingthis knowledge involves the demarcation of eco-sensitive zones and the use ofmodelling and visualisation. It is important to remember that calculating risk isnot solely a quantitative exercise; qualitative assessments and the considerationof indigenous and experiential knowledge of risk impact are crucial. Variousstakeholders’ perspectives should be incorporated into the risk calculationprocess and different approaches to calculating risk should also be integrated.Building the capacity of stakeholders to effectively calculate risk is alsonecessary for comprehensive and accurate assessments.IDENTIFY and EVALUATE equitable and sustainable solutions: Justiceis an inherent part of equitable solutions, which balance human and morethan-human needs. These solutions must be fair, inclusive, affordable, anduser-friendly, promoting co-living between nature, biodiverse creatures, andpeople. In terms of knowledge, it is essential to clarify what is included in thewater system to identify equitable and sustainable solutions. Nature-basedsolutions are crucial for ecosystem protection, alongside modern technologicalsolutions, including structural measures. Building capacity based on localand indigenous knowledge can strengthen nature-based solutions, andidentifying vulnerable sites, infrastructure, and people in close cooperationwith the target community is essential for sustainable solutions. Effectivecollaboration means developing a participatory process for identification andevaluation, ensuring that solutions benefit different groups equitably. Watersystems encompass a range of sectors, such as agriculture and industry,and so solutions need to benefit all these sectors, while also accepting sometrade-offs.RESHAPE policies and REVISE plans: Justice requires decision-makers,academics, and water experts to acknowledge that they are not omnipotentauthorities dictating how the world should function. Policies and plans mustaccount for uncertainty, variabilities, and context-specific factors. Withoutjustice, such policies and plans are meaningless. It is crucial to systematicallyand structurally involve marginalised voices in decision-making processes,ensuring that equity, diversity, and inclusion are considered. The informationshaping these policies must be accessible to everyone, enabling democraticparticipation in their formation. In addition, socio-ecological justice is not anoptional extra but a fundamental necessity.It is important to develop a wide range of methods and processes to collectand make accessible the evidence behind decisions. Qualitative evidence, suchas local values, is just as important as quantitative evidence. Decisions shouldbe supported by all types of knowledge, including local, technical, and scientific.Collaboration is essential in encouraging buy-in to plans and policies, fosteringa sense of ownership and belonging with regard to decisions. This also helpsstakeholders understand the risks faced by others, leading to a more cohesiveapproach. Policies should be multi-sectoral, synchronised, comprehensive,and inclusive, with bottom-up strategies prioritising vulnerable communitiesand nature. Recognising and addressing power asymmetries in policymakingDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest246 Pushing the Paradigm of Global Water Securityand planning is crucial for justice. Additionally, collaboration is necessary foreffective knowledge sharing.IMPLEMENT solutions and MONITOR progress: Considering justicemeans co-producing solutions that can be operated, repaired, adjusted, andmodified by those who face the problems in real life. Monitoring must ensureenvironmental justice, not just human benefits, and while compromises willbe necessary, solutions should not exacerbate existing inequities or injustices.These solutions should align with local values, beliefs, culture, and practices,and establish feedback mechanisms to check progress against inclusivity,equity, and efficiency considerations. Prioritising knowledge entails real-timemonitoring and capacity building to enhance implementation and monitoringeffectiveness. Citizen science empowers people to learn and contribute toknowledge generation, and data sharing across agencies allows progress tobe monitored and best practices to be shared. Knowledge transfer to differentgroups also helps standardise monitoring processes and generate furtherinnovations in both structural and non-structural designs. In order to promotethis collaboration, community members once again need to be trained to monitorprogress; in time, this leads to community-owned and -managed solutions,which foster a sense of ownership. All implementation processes should involvecommunities actively, rather than being imposed on them. Participation createsa sense of belonging and collaboration between stakeholders with differentexpertise ensures effective realisation of solutions.RESPOND to potential threats to water security: Justice is essentialin ensuring that we aid the most vulnerable and in need first, while alsomaintaining fairness to ecosystems. This means identifying marginalisedgroups and ensuring their access to safety procedures. And we must adopt alongitudinal perspective to mitigating threats, recognising that this is not a fixedgoal, but rather an evolving process. Knowledge, though always incomplete andscarce compared with reality, must be managed effectively. Integrated, realtime data is crucial for effective response and prioritisation of actions. Finally,collaboration demands that we coordinate responses that are multi-agency bynature, facilitated by effective communication and dissemination platforms.CONCLUDING REMARKSThroughout this book, we have sought to highlight the critical importance ofwater security amidst growing global challenges such as conflict, pollution,and climate change. We have emphasised the need for a comprehensive andproactive approach, drawing upon diverse perspectives and experiences fromaround the world. The book features the voices of a variety of stakeholders,including early career researchers, non-governmental organisations, indigenouscommunities, and government agencies. Through community-directed videos,sonorous postcards, and visual stories, we have created forms of expressionaccessible to a broad readership beyond the traditional academic audience.We have highlighted a methodology of transnational cooperation,interdisciplinary collaboration, and diagnostic problem-solving, rejectingreductionist approaches to addressing water security. In academia, researchDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestConclusion 247is often siloed by disciplines and researchers are put in competition with oneanother for funding, promotions, and jobs. As a multi-cultural network of earlycareer researchers with vastly different backgrounds and expertise, we haveshown that international, interdisciplinary collaboration is indeed possible.The process of creating this anthology has not been a straightforward linearprogression, but an illuminating learning experience in which interdisciplinarityhas been cooperatively formulated and applied into practice, enabling manypossibilities for future work and methodologies.Collectively, in order to shift the current technocratic and anthropocentricparadigm of water security, we advocate for the recognition of theinterconnectedness of environmental conservation, social stability, andeconomic vitality. We call for solutions rooted in socio-ecological justicethat look beyond physical boundaries and borders and integrate pluralisticknowledge systems, driving change through collaboration and partnerships.This is how we achieve a water secure future.REFERENCESCooper M. (2016). Conclusions: The future of sustainable water management. In:Sustainable Water Management: New Perspectives, Design, and Practices, K.Nakagami, J. Kubota and B. I. Setiawan (eds.), Springer, Singapore, pp. 175–185.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1204-4_12Madani K. (2014). Water management in Iran: What is causing the looming crisis? Journalof Environmental Studies and Sciences, 4, 315–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-014-0182-zDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguestiwaponline.com @IWAPublishingISBN: 9781789062540 (eBook)ISBN: 9781789062557 (ePub)This book brings together early career researchers, non-governmentalorganisations and industry practitioners, indigenous and local communities,and government agency workers to interrogate the concept of watersecurity. By collating multicultural perspectives, diverse contributions, andillustrative media, we challenge the current anthropocentric, technocraticnarrative of water security, according to which: water security is solelyfor humans; development initiatives and interventions are driven byneocolonial and neoliberal ideologies; the socio-cultural approach to watersecurity is secondary to a technical, engineering-based approach; andinterdisciplinarity is not practical in its application.Presented here is an amalgamation of our personal and professional effortsto address these challenges. The nuance of this book is in our methodology:transnational cooperation, collaboration across disciplines, and diagnosticproblem-solving. While we do not promise a single solution (there is no suchthing as ‘one size fits all’), we believe this timely contribution broadens thediscussion around water security through its firm rejection of reductionistapproaches to this most complex of ‘wicked problems’.Most notably, we push for the radical acceptance of the indivisibility ofenvironmental conservation, social stability, and economic vitality. Weresist the temptation of ‘green growth’, recognising it as little more thanneoliberalism in disguise. The brilliance, innovation, and recall to traditionthat emerge through this book demonstrate the importance of solutionsthat are informed by a plurality of knowledge types (from scientific andtechnical to indigenous and local) and generated through collaboration andpartnerships to support the attainment of socio-ecological justice.Essential reading for water practitioners, policy makers, and multilateralorganisations in the development sector, it is also a must-read for doctoraland master’s students working at intersections of water, and undergraduateswho want to challenge their subject-specific perspectives on water and pushdisciplinary boundaries.Cover image: David Chaquea Romero and Eduar Esteban Córdoba RodríguezDownloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/1481970/wio9781789062540.pdfbyguest